Abstract
At a time of global neoliberal reforms and rampant austerity measures, education has become a commodity. Within this context of education as a right for the privileged, racial disparities in discipline and achievement have been normalized and accepted as natural at the expense of multiply-marginalized Students of Color, those at the intersection of multiple oppressions. Consequently, educators feel increasingly powerless and unequipped to reduce such systemic inequities. This chapter refutes the assumption of disparities along the lines of race, disability, and intersectional identity as unavoidable, by advancing a Disability Critical Race Theory (DisCrit) approach to classroom and behavior management for educators. Strategies for behavioral management have been traditionally derived from an individualistic, psychological orientation. As a result, behavioral management has been conceptualized as correcting and preventing disruption caused by the “difficult” students and about reinforcing positive comportment of the “good” ones. DisCrit shifts the questions that are asked from “How can we fix students who disobey rules?” to “How can pre-service teacher education and existing behavioral management courses be transformed so that they are not steeped in color-evasion and silent on interlocking systems of oppression?”. DisCrit provides an opportunity to (re)organize classrooms, moving away from “fixing” the individual – be it the student or the teacher – and shifting toward justice. When teachers understand (1) ways students are systemically oppressed, (2) how oppressions are (re)produced in classrooms, and (3) what they can do to resist those oppressions in terms of pedagogy, curriculum, and relationships, they can build solidarity and resistance with students and communities. DisCrit has the potential to prepare future teachers to create a learning environment that encourages positive social interactions and active engagement in learning focused on creating solidarity in the classroom instead of managing. This results in curriculum, pedagogy, and relationships that are rooted in expansive notions of justice. The chapter illustrates how DisCrit, as an intersectional and interdisciplinary framework, can enrich existing pre-service teachers’ beliefs about relationships in the classroom and connect these relationships to larger projects of dismantling inequities faced by multiply-marginalized students. Consequently we are writing about DisCrit Solidarity as theory informed practice or praxis.
References
Adams, D. L., & Erevelles, N. (2016). Shadow play: DisCrit, dis/respectability, and the carceral logics. In S. Annamma, D. Connor, & B. Ferri (Eds.), DisCrit: Disability studies and critical race theory in education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Advancement Project, The. (2010). Test, punish, and push out: How zero tolerance and high-stakes testing funnel youth into the school to prison pipeline. Washington, DC: Author.
Advancement Project, The. (2014). Restorative practices: Fostering healthy relationships & promoting positive discipline in schools. A guide for educators. Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force. (2008). Are zero tolerance policies effective in the schools? An evidentiary review and recommendations. The American Psychologist, 63, 852–862.
Annamma, S., Anyon, Y., Joseph, N. M., Farrar, J., Greer, E., Downing, B., & Simmons, J. (2016). Black girls and school discipline: The complexities of being overrepresented and understudied. Urban Education, 54(2), 211–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085916646610
Annamma, S., Connor, D., & Ferri, B. (2013). Dis/ability critical race studies (DisCrit): Theorizing at the intersections of race and dis/ability. Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Education, 16(1), 1–31.
Annamma, S. A., Morrison, D., & Jackson, D. (2014). Disproportionality fills in the gaps: Connections between achievement, discipline and special education in the School-to-Prison Pipeline. Berkeley Review of Eduction, 5(1), 53–87.
Annamma, S. A., Jackson, D. D., & Morrison, D. (2017). Conceptualizing color-evasiveness: Using dis/ability critical race theory to expand a color-blind racial ideology in education and society. Race Ethnicity and Education, 20(2), 147–162.
Annamma, S., & Morrison, D. (2018a). DisCrit classroom ecology: Using praxis to dismantle dysfunctional education ecologies. Teaching and Teacher Education, 73, 70–80.
Annamma, S., & Morrison, D. (2018b). Identifying dysfunctional education ecologies: A DisCrit analysis of bias in the classroom. Equity & Excellence in Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2018.1496047
Annamma, S. A. (2018). The pedagogy of pathologization: Dis/abled girls of color in the school-prison nexus. New York, NY: Routledge.
Annamma, S. A., Miller, A., Jackson, E., & Handy, G. T. (under review). Animating discipline disparities through dis/abling practices: Girls of color & withholding in the classroom. Teachers College Record, 123(1).
Artiles, A. J. (2013). Untangling the racialization of disabilities: An intersectionality critique across disability models. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 10(2), 329–347.
Baynton, D. C. (2001). Disability and the justification for inequality in American history. In P. Longmore & L. Umansky (Eds.), The new disability history: American perspectives (pp. 33–57). New York, NY: New York University Press.
Bhattacharya, K. (2017). Fundamentals of qualitative research. New York, NY: Routledge.
Brantlinger, E., & Danforth, S. (2006). Critical theory perspectives on social class, race and classroom management. In C. M. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research practice, and contemporary issues (pp. 157–180). New York, NY: Routledge.
Broderick, A., & Leonardo, Z. (2016). What a good boy: the deployment and distribution of “goodness” as ideological property in schools. In S. Annamma, D. Connor, & D. B. Ferri (Eds.), DisCrit: Disability studies and critical race theory in education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Brophy, J. (1988). Educating teachers about managing classrooms and students. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4(1), 1–18.
Burdge, H., Licona, A. C., & Hyemingway, Z. T. (2014). LGBTQ youth of color: Discipline disparities, school push-out, and the school-to-prison pipeline. GSA Network, Available at: https://gsanetwork.org/files/aboutus/LGBTQ_brief_FINAL-web.pdf
Carter, P. L., Skiba, R., Arredondo, M. I., & Pollock, M. (2017). You can’t fix what you don’t look at: Acknowledging race in addressing racial discipline disparities. Urban Education, 52(2), 207–235.
Children’s Defense Fund (1975). School Supensions: are they helping? Cambridge: MA, Washington Research Project.
Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC). (2016). First look report. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/2013-14-fist-look.pdf.
Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) (2018). School Climate and Safety. Data Highlights on School Climate and Safety. U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights.
Collins, K. M. (2011). Discursive positioning in a fifth-grade writing lesson. The making of a “bad, bad boy”. Urban Education, 46(6), 741–785.
Connor, D., Ferri, B., & Annamma, S. (2016). DisCrit: Disability studies and critical race theory in education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Cooley, S. (1995). Suspension/expulsion of regular and special education students in Kansas: A report to the Kansas State Bord of Education. Topeka, KS: Kansas State Board of Education.
DeCuir, J. T., & Dixon, A. D. (2004). “So when it comes out, they aren’t surprised that it is there”: Using critical race theory as a tool of analysis of race and racism in education. Educational Researcher, 33(5), 26–23.
DuBois, W. E. B. (1924). The gift of black folk: The Negros in the making of America (Vol. 18). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. (on Demand).
Engeström, Y. (2001). Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization. Journal of Education and Work, 14(1), 133–156.
Epstein, R., Blake, J. J., & González, T. (2017). Girlhood interrupted: The erasure of black girls’ childhood. Washington, DC: Center on Poverty and Inequality, Georgetown Law.
Erevelles, N. (2000). Educating unruly bodies: Critical pedagogy, disability studies and the politics of schooling. Educational Theory, 50(1), 25–47.
Erevelles, N. (2011). Coming out crip in inclusive educaiton. Teachers College Record, 113(10), 2155–2185.
Erevelles, N. (2014). Cripping Jim Crow: Disability, dis-location and the school-to-prison pipeline. In L. Ben-Moshe, C. Chapman, & A. C. Carey (Eds.), Disability incarcerated: Imprisonment and disability in the United States and Canada (pp. 81–99). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Erickson, F. (1998). Qualitative research methods for science education. In B. J. Fraser & K. G. Tobin (Eds.), International handbook on science education (pp. 1155–1173). Great Britain, UK: Kluwer.
Evertson, C. M., & Weinstein, C. S. (2011). Classroom management as a field of inquiry. In C. M. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management. Research, practice and contemporary issues (pp. 3–16). New York, NY: Routledge.
Ferri, B. A., & Connor, D. J. (2005). Tools of exclusion: Race, disability, and (re) segregated education. Teachers College Record, 107(3), 453–474.
Fierros, E. G., & Conroy, J. W. (2002). Double jeopardy: An exploration of restrictiveness and race and race in special education. In D. J. Losen & G. Orfield (Eds.), Racial inequities in special education (pp. 39–70). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Gilliam, W. S., Maupin, A. N., Reyes, C. R., Accavitti, M., & Shic, F. (2016). Do early educators’ implicit biases regarding sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recommendations of preschool expulsions and suspensions? (pp. 991–1013). New Haven, CT: Yale Child Study Center.
Gregory, A., Nygreen, K., & Moran, D. (2006). The discipline gap and the normalization of failure. In P. Noguera & J. Wing (Eds.), Unfinished business: Closing the racial achievement gap in our schools (pp. 121–150). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Gregory, A., & Ripski, M. (2008). Adolescent trust in teachers: Implications for behavior in the high school classroom. School Psychology Review, 37, 337–353.
Heret, J., Kaba, M., Meiners, E., & Wallance, L. (2012). Restorative justice is not enough: School-based interventions in the carceral state. In S. Bahena, N. Cooc, R. Currie-Rubin, P. Kuttner, & M. Ng (Eds.), Disrupting the school-to-prison pipeline (pp. 240–264). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Review.
Jones, V. F., & Jones, L. (2013). Comprehensive classroom management (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Kim, C., Losen, D., & Hewitt, D. (2010). The school to prison pipeline: Structuring legal reform. New York, NY: New York University Press.
King, J. E. (1991). Dysconscious racism: Ideology, identity and the miseducation of teachers. The Journal of Negro Education, 60(2), 133–146.
King, J. E. (2004). Dysconscious racism. In G. Ladson-Billings & D. Gillborn (Eds.), The RoutledgeFalmer reader in multicultural education (pp. 71–83). London, England: Routledge.
Kudlick, C. J. (2003). Disability history: Why we need another ‘other’. The American History Review, 108(3), 763–793.
Leonardo, Z., & Broderick, A. (2011). Smartness as property: A critical exploration of intersections between whiteness and disability studies. Teachers College Record, 113(10). Retrieved from: http://www.tcrecord.orgID 16431
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Losen, D. J., & Gillespie, J. (2012). Opportunities suspended: The disparate impact of disciplinary exclusion from school. Los Angeles, CA: The Civil Rights Project at UCLA.
Losen, D. J., & Skiba, R. J. (2010). Suspended education. Urban middle schools in crisis. Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center.
Margolis, E. (2004). Looking at discipline, looking at labour: Photographic representations of Indian boarding schools. Visual Studies, 19(1), 54–78.
Matsuda, M. J. (1987). Looking to the bottom: Critical legal studies and reparations. Harvard Civil Rights Civil Liberties Law Review, 72, 30–164.
McCarthy, J. D., & Hoge, D. R. (1987). The social construction of school punishment: Racial disadvantage out of universalistic process. Social Forces, 65, 1101–1120.
McCaslin, M., & Good, T. L. (1998). Moving beyond management as sheet compliance: Helping students to develop goal coordination strategies. Educational Horizons, 76(4), 169–176.
Meiners, E. R. (2007). Right to be hostile: Schools, prisons, and the making of public enemies (1st ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Migliarini, V., & Annamma, S. (forthcoming), Disability critical race theory (DisCrit) in teacher education. In Oxford encyclopedia of teacher education. New York, NY: Oxford University Press
Morris, M. (2012). Race, Gender, and the School-to-Prison Pipeline: Expanding our Discussion to Inclusde Black Girls. New York: African American Policy Forum.
Morris, M. W. (2016). Pushout: The criminalization of black girls in schools. New York, NY: The New Press.
Morris, R. (Ed.). (2000). Stories of transformative justice. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press.
National Center for Ed Statistics (NCES) (2015). Indicators of School Crime and Safety. Washington, DC: Author.
Noguera, P., & Wing, J. Y. (2006). Unfinished business: Closing the racial achievement gap in our schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. a Wiley imprint.
Okonofua, J. A., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2015). Two strikes: Race and the disciplining of young students. Psychological Science, 26(5), 617–624.
Osher, D., Woodruff, D., & Sims, A. E. (2002). School makes a difference: The overrepresentation of African American youth in special education and the juvenile justice system. In D. J. Losen & G. Orfield (Eds.), Racial inequity in special education (pp. 98–118). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Rogoff, B. (1994). Developing understanding of the idea of communities of learners. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 11(4), 209–229.
Ross, K. M., Nasir, N. S., Givens, J. R., De Royston, M. M., Vakil, S., Madkins, T. C., et al. (2016). “I do this for all of the reasons America doesn’t want me to”: The organic pedagogies of black male instructors. Equity & Excellence in Education, 49(1), 85–99.
Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & Peterson, R. (2000). The color of discipline. Policy Research Report, Indiana Education Policy Center. Retrieved from http://www.indiana.edu/~safeschl/cod.pdf
Skiba, R. J., Peterson, R. L., & Williams, T. (1997). Office referrals and suspension: Disciplinary intervention in middle schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 20(3), 295–315.
Skiba, R. J., & Rausch, M. K. (2006). Zero tolerance, suspension, and expulsion: Questions of equity and effectiveness. In C. M. Everson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook for classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues (pp. 1063–1089). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Skrtic, T. M. (1985). Doing naturalistic research into educational organizations. In Y. S. Lincoln (Ed.), Organizational theory and inquiry: The paradigm revolution (pp. 185–221). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Taylor, S. J., & Bodgan, R. (2016). Introduction to qualitative research methods. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Thorius, K. A. K., Rodriguez, E. M., & Bal, A. (2013). Re-mediating the role of school/family partnerships in systemic chance within culturally responsive positive behavior interventions and supports (Equity by design research brief series). Indianapolis, IN/Madison, WI: Great Lakes Equity Center/CRPBIS Project. Retrieved from: http://crpbis.org/documents/2013_CRPBIS_Brief_FINAL.pdf
Thornton, C. H., & Trent, W. (1988). School desegregation and suspension in East Baton Rouge Parish: A preliminary report. The Journal of Negro Education, 57, 482–501.
United States (U.S.) Department of Education. (2018). https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-201812.pdf.
United States (U.S.) Department of Education Office For Civil Rights. (2018). 2014–2015 Civil rights data collection. School climate and safety. New Release for 2018. Available at: https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/school-climate-and-safety.pdf
Valencia, R.R. (1997). ‘Conceptualizing the notion of deficit thinking’. In R.R. Valencia (Ed.), The evolution of deficit thinking: Educational thought and practice (pp. 113–131). London, England: RoutledgeFalmer.
Valenzuela, A. (2010). Subtractive schooling: US-Mexican youth and the politics of caring (3rd ed.). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Wald, J. (2014). Can “de-biasing” strategies help to reduce racial disparities in school discipline? Supplementary paper II: Summary of the literature. Charles Hamilton Houston Institute for Race and Justice.
Ware, F. (2006). Warm demander pedagogy culturally responsive teaching that supports a culture of achievement for African American students. Urban Education, 41(4), 427–456.
Watermeyer, B. (2013). Towards a contextual psychology of disablism. New York, NY: Routledge.
Wu, S. C., Pink, W. T., Crain, R. L., & Moles, O. (1982). Student suspension: A critical reappraisal. The Urban Review, 14, 245–303.
Yin, R. (2017). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods. Los Angeles: Sage.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Section Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Migliarini, V., Annamma, S.A. (2019). Classroom and Behavior Management: (Re)conceptualization Through Disability Critical Race Theory. In: Papa, R. (eds) Handbook on Promoting Social Justice in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74078-2_95-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74078-2_95-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-74078-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-74078-2
eBook Packages: Springer Reference EducationReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Education
Publish with us
Chapter history
-
Latest
Classroom and Behavior Management: (Re)conceptualization Through Disability Critical Race Theory- Published:
- 09 December 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74078-2_95-2
-
Original
Classroom and Behavior Management: (Re)conceptualization Through Disability Critical Race Theory- Published:
- 17 September 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74078-2_95-1