Abstract
Although there are millions of transgender individuals in the world, little information has been collected on them and very little research has been done about their labor force status. This chapter examines that limited literature, looking at the percentages of transgender individuals who are employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force, as well as the factors influencing that labor force status. Unemployment rates and labor force participation rates of transgender samples are compared to the rates for the general populations of Australia, the USA, the UK, and Ireland. The studies that have been done consistently show outrageously high transgender unemployment rates. Evidence also suggests high transgender labor force participation rates; this may be due largely to inability to afford to be out of the labor force, which in turn is due to low income resulting from discrimination. While social norms have moved toward greater acceptance of transgender people, there is a very long way to go. Protections must be in place so that transgender men and women can feel safe coming out of the closet. As more of them do so and others begin to see them as just people, the effect should snowball, making it possible for even more to come out. Individuals and society as a whole have much to gain when all people are able to make valuable contributions to the world.
References
American Psychological Association (2016) Stress in America: the impact of discrimination. Stress in Americaâ„¢ survey. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2015/impact-of-discrimination.pdf. Accessed 25 Nov 2018
Angrist JD, Evans WN (1998) Children and their parents’ labor supply: evidence from exogenous variation in family size. Am Econ Rev 88:450–477
Appelbaum SH, Adam J, Javeri N, Lessard M, Lion J-P, Simard M, Sorbo S (2005) A case study analysis of the impact of satisfaction and organizational citizenship on productivity. Manag Res News 28:1–26. https://doi.org/10.1108/01409170510629023
Archibong U, Sharps PW (2013) A comparative analysis of affirmative action in the United Kingdom and United States. J Psychol Issues Organ Cult 3:28–49
Arrow KJ (1973) The theory of discrimination. In: Ashenfelter O, Rees A (eds) Discrimination in labor markets. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp 3–33
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2005) Labour force, Australia, Jan 2005. http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/04605BAF9770C1D2CA256FBF0075AE59?opendocument. Accessed 1 July 2018
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013) Labour force, Australia, July 2013. http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/8BF7E9F356270F54CA257BE3001DDD2F?opendocument. Accessed 29 June 2018
Badgett MVL, Lau H, Sears B, Ho D (2007) Bias in the workplace: consistent evidence of sexual orientation and gender identity discrimination. Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, University of California, Los Angeles. http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Badgett-Sears-Lau-Ho-Bias-in-the-Workplace-Jun-2007.pdf. Accessed 2 Dec 2018
Becker GS (1957) The economics of discrimination. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Blau FD, Winkler AE (2018) The economics of women, men and work, 8th edn. Oxford University Press, New York
Bowen WG, Finegan TA (1969) The economics of labor force participation. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Brown HC Jr (2015) A crowded room or the perfect fit? Exploring affirmative action treatment in college and university admissions for self-identified LGBT individuals. William Mary J Women Law 21. http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol21/iss3/3. Accessed 5 Dec 2018
Brundage V Jr (2017) Profile of the labor force by educational attainment. https://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2017/educational-attainment-of-the-labor-force/pdf/educational-attainment-of-the-labor-force.pdf. Accessed 5 July 2018
Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor (2015) The employment situation – September 2015. https://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/empsit_10022015.pdf. Accessed 28 June 2018
Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor (2016) Glossary. http://www.bls.gov/bls/glossary.htm. Accessed 28 June 2018
Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor (2017a) Persons with a disability: labor force characteristics: 2016. News release USDL-17-0857. https://www.bls.gov/news.release/disabl.htm. Accessed 5 June 2018
Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor (2017b) Unemployment rate and employment-population ratio vary by race and ethnicity. The Economics Daily. https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2017/unemployment-rate-and-employment-population-ratio-vary-by-race-and-ethnicity.htm. Accessed 3 July 2018
Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor (2017c) Women in the labor force: a databook. BLS reports: report 1065. https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/womens-databook/2016/pdf/home.pdf. Accessed 17 May 2018
Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor (2018a) Household data, annual averages, employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population by age, sex, and race. https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat03.pdf. Accessed 3 July 2018
Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor (2018b) Labor force statistics from the current population survey. https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat24.htm. Accessed 4 July 2018
Campus Pride (2018) Colleges and universities with LGBTQ identity questions as an option on admission applications & enrollment forms. https://www.campuspride.org/tpc/identity-questions-as-an-option/. Accessed 5 Dec 2018
Carpenter CS, Eppink ST, Gonzales G (2017) Transgender status, employment, and income. Unpublished manuscript
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015a) Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System: 2014 BRFSS modules used by category. https://www.cdc.gov/brfss/questionnaires/modules/category2014.htm. Accessed 20 June 2018
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015b) Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System: 2015 BRFSS modules used by category. https://www.cdc.gov/brfss/questionnaires/modules/category2015.htm. Accessed 20 June 2018
Cools S, Markussen S, Strøm M (2017) Children and careers: how family size affects parents’ labor market outcomes in the long run. Demography 54:1773–1793. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-017-0612-0
Drydakis N (2017) Trans employees, transitioning, and job satisfaction. J Vocat Behav 98:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.09.003
Equality Act (2010) http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15. Accessed 5 Dec 2018
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (n.d.-a) Civilian labor force participation rate: men. https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/LNU01300001. Accessed 30 June 2018
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (n.d.-b) Civilian labor force participation rate: women. https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/LNU01300002. Accessed 30 June 2018
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (n.d.-c) Graph: civilian unemployment rate. https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?id=UNRATENSA. Accessed 28 June 2018
Finfacts Ireland (2011) Irish economy 2012: Irish unemployment rate jumps to 14.8% – highest since economic crash in 2008. http://www.finfacts.ie/irishfinancenews/article_1024459.shtml. Accessed 28 June 2018
Flores AR, Herman JL, Gates GJ, Brown TNT (2016) How many adults identify as transgender in the United States? The Williams Institute, Los Angeles. https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/How-Many-Adults-Identify-as-Transgender-in-the-United-States.pdf. Accessed 2 July 2018
Geijtenbeek L, Plug E (2015) Is there a penalty for becoming a woman? Is there a premium for becoming a man? Evidence from a sample of transsexual workers. Discussion paper no. 9077. IZA (Institute for the Study of Labor), Bonn. http://ftp.iza.org/dp9077.pdf. Accessed 17 May 2018
Government Equalities Office (2018) National LGBT survey: research report. Government Equalities Office, Manchester. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/721704/LGBT-survey-research-report.pdf. Accessed 25 Nov 2018
Grant JM, Mottet LA, Tanis J, Harrison J, Herman JL, Keisling M (2011) Injustice at every turn: a report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. National Center for Transgender Equality/National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, Washington, DC. http://transequality.org/issues/resources/national-transgender-discrimination-survey-full-report. Accessed 20 June 2018
Harris Poll (2018) Accelerating acceptance 2018: a survey of American acceptance and attitudes toward LGBTQ Americans. http://www.glaad.org/files/aa/Accelerating%20Acceptance%202018.pdf. Accessed 28 Nov 2018
Heslin PA, Bell MP (2012) The devil without and within: a conceptual model of social cognitive processes whereby discrimination leads stigmatized minorities to become discouraged workers. J Organ Behav 33:840–862
Hill DB, Willoughby BL (2005) The development and validation of the genderism and transphobia scale. Sex Roles 53:531–544
HR Unlimited Inc. (2018) Affirmative action laws now protect LGBT employees of federal contractors. https://www.hrunlimitedinc.com/affirmative-action-laws-now-protect-lgbt-employees-of-federal-contractors/. Accessed 27 Nov 2018
James SE, Herman JL, Rankin S, Keisling M, Mottet L, Anafi M (2016) The report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey. National Center for Transgender Equality, Washington, DC. https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/usts/USTS-Full-Report-Dec17.pdf. Accessed 17 May 2018
Jones T (2016) Female-to-male (FtM) transgender employees in Australia. In: Köllen T (ed) Sexual orientation and transgender issues in organizations. Springer, Cham, pp 101–116
Kosciw JG, Greytak EA, Bartkiewicz MJ, Boesen MJ, Palmer NE (2012) The 2011 National School Climate Survey. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED535177.pdf. Accessed 28 Nov 2018
Koys D (2001) The effects of employee satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, and turnover on organizational effectiveness: a unit-level, longitudinal study. Pers Psychol 54:101–114
Leppel K (2016) The labor force status of transgender men and women. Int J Transgenderism 17:155–164
Leppel K (2019) Transgender men and women in 2015: Employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force. Journal of Homosexuality. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2019.1648081
Levine MP (1979) Employment discrimination against gay men. Int Rev Mod Sociol 9:151–163
Levine MP, Leonard R (1984) Discrimination against lesbians in the work force. Signs 9:700–710. https://doi.org/10.1086/494094
Mallory C, Sears B (2015) Employment discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity in Florida. Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, University of California, Los Angeles. https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/FL-NonDiscrimination-March-2015.pdf. Accessed 2 July 2018
McNeil J, Bailey L, Ellis S, Morton J, Regan M (2012) Trans mental health study. https://www.gires.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/trans_mh_study.pdf. Accessed 28 June 2018
McNeil J, Bailey L, Ellis S, Regan M (2013) Speaking from the margins: trans mental health and wellbeing in Ireland. http://www.teni.ie/attachments/5bdd0cd5-16b6-4ab6-9ee6-a693b37fdbcf.PDF. Accessed 28 June 2018
Mincer J (1962) Labor force participation of married women: a study of labor supply. In: Lewis HG (ed) Aspects of labor economics. Princeton University Press, Princeton
National Center for Transgender Equality (2018) Frequently asked questions about transgender people. https://transequality.org/issues/resources/frequently-asked-questions-about-transgender-people. Accessed 25 Nov 2018
Pitts M, Smith A, Mitchell A, Patel S (2006) Private lives: a report on the health and wellbeing of the GLBTI Australians. http://arrow.latrobe.edu.au:8080/vital/access/manager/Repository/latrobe:21759. Accessed 1 July 2018
Planned Parenthood (2018) Transgender identity terms and labels. https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/sexual-orientation-gender/trans-and-gender-nonconforming-identities/transgender-identity-terms-and-labels. Accessed 25 Nov 2018
Schilt K, Wiswall M (2008) Before and after: gender transitions, human capital, and workplace experiences. B.E. J Econ Anal Policy 8(1):Article 39. https://doi.org/10.2202/1935-1682.1862
Statista (2018) Unemployment rate in the United Kingdom (UK) from 2000 to 2017. https://www.statista.com/statistics/279898/unemployment-rate-in-the-united-kingdom-uk/. Accessed 28 June 2018
United States Coast Guard (n.d.) Equal employment opportunity laws, statutes, and regulations. https://www.uscg.mil/Resources/Civil-Rights/Equal-Employment-Opportunity-Laws-Statutes-and-Regulations/. Accessed 5 Dec 2018
US Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (2017) Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). https://www.cms.gov/About-CMS/Agency-Information/OMH/resource-center/hcps-and-researchers/data-tools/sgm-clearinghouse/brfss.html. Accessed 20 June 2018
Van Borm H, Baert S (2018) What drives hiring discrimination against transgenders? Int J Manpow 39:581–599. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-09-2017-0233
Willness CR, Steel P, Lee K (2007) A meta-analysis of the antecedents and consequences of workplace sexual harassment. Pers Psychol 60:127–162
World Bank (2018a) Australia labor force participation rate, male. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.MA.NE.ZS?locations=AU. Accessed 30 June 2018
World Bank (2018b) Ireland labor force participation rate, total. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.ZS?locations=IE. Accessed 30 June 2018
World Bank (2018c) United Kingdom labor force participation rate, total. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.ZS?locations=GB. Accessed 30 June 2018
Wright T, Bonett D (2007) Job satisfaction and psychological well-being as nonadditive predictors of workplace turnover. J Manag 33:141–160
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Section Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Leppel, K. (2020). Labor Force Status of Transgender Individuals. In: Zimmermann, K. (eds) Handbook of Labor, Human Resources and Population Economics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_83-2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_83-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-57365-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-57365-6
eBook Packages: Springer Reference Economics and FinanceReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences
Publish with us
Chapter history
-
Latest
Labor Force Status of Transgender Individuals- Published:
- 11 January 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_83-2
-
Original
Labor Force Status of Transgender Men and Women- Published:
- 28 December 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_83-1