Abstract
Acid phosphatases are enzymes that have been studied extensively due to the fact that their dysregulation is associated with pathophysiological conditions. This characteristic has been exploited for the development of diagnostic and therapeutic methods. As an example, prostatic acid phosphatase was the first marker for metastatic prostate cancer diagnosis and the dysregulation of tartrate resistant acid phosphatase is associated with abnormal bone resorption linked to osteoporosis.
The pioneering crystallization studies on prostatic acid phosphatase and mammalian tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase conformed significant milestones towards the elucidation of the mechanisms followed by these enzymes (Schneider et al., EMBO J 12:2609–2615, 1993). Acid phosphatases are also found in nonmammalian species such as bacteria, fungi, parasites, and plants, and most of them share structural similarities with mammalian acid phosphatase enzymes.
Acid phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.2) enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphate monoesters following the general equation (1).
The general classification “acid phosphatase” relies only on the optimum acidic pH for the enzymatic activity in assay conditions using non-physiological substrates. These enzymes accept a wide range of substrates in vitro, ranging from small organic molecules to phosphoproteins, constituting a heterogeneous group of enzymes from the structural point of view. These structural differences account for the divergence in cofactor dependences and behavior against substrates, inhibitors, and activators. In this group only the tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase is a metallo-enzyme whereas the other members do not require metal-ion binding for their catalytic activity. In addition, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase and erythrocytic acid phosphatase are not inhibited by l-(+)-tartrate ion while the prostatic acid phosphatase is tartrate-sensitive. This is an important difference that can be exploited in in vitro assays to differentiate between different kinds of phosphatase activity. The search for more sensitive and specific methods of detection in clinical laboratory applications led to the development of radioimmunoassays (RIA) for determination of prostatic acid phosphatase in serum. These methods permit the direct quantification of the enzyme regardless of its activity status. Therefore, an independent structural classification exists that helps to group these enzymes according to their structural features and mechanisms. Based on this we can distinguish the histidine acid phosphatases (Van Etten, Ann N Y Acad Sci 390:27–51, 1982), the low molecular weight protein tyrosine acid phosphatases and the metal-ion dependent phosphatases.
A note of caution is worthwhile mentioning here. The nomenclature of acid phosphatases has not been particularly easy for those new to the subject. Unfortunately, the acronym PAP is very common in the literature about purple acid phosphatases and prostatic acid phosphatase. In addition, LPAP is the acronym chosen to refer to the lysophosphatidic acid phosphatase which is a different enzyme. It is important to bear in mind this distinction while reviewing the literature to avoid confusion.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Schneider G, Lindqvist Y, Vihko P (1993) Three-dimensional structure of rat acid phosphatase. EMBO J 12:2609–2615
Vihko P (1978) Human prostatic acid phosphatase and its radioimmunoassay. Acta Universitatis Ouluensis, Series D Medica 33, Clinica Chemica 1:1–78
Van Etten RL (1982) Human prostatic acid phosphatase: a histidine phosphatase. Ann N Y Acad Sci 390:27–51
Lindqvist Y, Schneider G, Vihko P (1994) Crystal structures of rat acid phosphatase complexed with the transition-state analogs vanadate and molybdate. Implications for the reaction mechanism. Eur J Biochem 221:139–142
Lindqvist Y, Schneider G, Vihko P (1993) Three-dimensional structure of rat acid phosphatase in complex with L(+)-tartrate. J Biol Chem 268:20744–20746
Porvari KS, Herrala AM, Kurkela RM et al (1994) Site-directed mutagenesis of prostatic acid phosphatase. Catalytically important aspartic acid 258, substrate specificity, and oligomerization. J Biol Chem 269:22642–22646
Luchter-Wasylewska E (2001) Cooperative kinetics of human prostatic acid phosphatase. Biochim Biophys Acta 1548:257–264
Singh H, Felts RL, Schuermann JP et al (2009) Crystal Structures of the histidine acid phosphatase from Francisella tularensis provide insight into substrate recognition. J Mol Biol 394:893–904
Peters C, Geier C, Pohlmann R et al (1989) High degree of homology between primary structure of human lysosomal acid phosphatase and human prostatic acid phosphatase. Biol Chem Hoppe Seyler 370:177–181
Pohlmann R, Krentler C, Schmidt B et al (1988) Human lysosomal acid phosphatase: cloning, expression and chromosomal assignment. EMBO J 7:2343–2350
Quintero IB, Araujo CL, Pulkka AE et al (2007) Prostatic acid phosphatase is not a prostate specific target. Cancer Res 67:6549–6554
Gottschalk S, Waheed A, Schmidt B et al (1989) Sequential processing of lysosomal acid phosphatase by a cytoplasmic thiol proteinase and a lysosomal aspartyl proteinase. EMBO J 8:3215–3219
Zylka MJ, Sowa NA, Taylor-Blake B et al (2008) Prostatic acid phosphatase is an ectonucleotidase and suppresses pain by generating adenosine. Neuron 60:111–122
Hurt JK, Coleman JL, Fitzpatrick BJ et al (2012) Prostatic acid phosphatase is required for the antinociceptive effects of thiamine and benfotiamine. PLoS One 7:e48562
Li HC, Chernoff J, Chen LB et al (1984) A phosphotyrosyl-protein phosphatase activity associated with acid phosphatase from human prostate gland. Eur J Biochem 138:45–51
Lin MF, DaVolio J, Garcia-Arenas R (1992) Expression of human prostatic acid phosphatase activity and the growth of prostate carcinoma cells. Cancer Res 52:4600–4607
Veeramani S, Chou YW, Lin FC et al (2012) Reactive oxygen species induced by p66Shc longevity protein mediate nongenomic androgen action via tyrosine phosphorylation signaling to enhance tumorigenicity of prostate cancer cells. Free Radic Biol Med 53:95–108
Campbell HD, Dionysius DA, Keough DT et al (1978) Iron-containing acid phosphatases: comparison of the enzymes from beef spleen and pig allantoic fluid. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 82:615–620
Davis JC, Averill BA (1982) Evidence for a spin-coupled binuclear iron unit at the active site of the purple acid phosphatase from beef spleen. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 79:4623–4627
Oddie GW, Schenk G, Angel NZ et al (2000) Structure, function, and regulation of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase. Bone 27:575–584
Halleen JM, Raisanen S, Salo JJ et al (1999) Intracellular fragmentation of bone resorption products by reactive oxygen species generated by osteoclastic tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase. J Biol Chem 274:22907–22910
Antanaitis BC, Aisen P, Lilienthal HR (1983) Physical characterization of two-iron uteroferrin. Evidence for a spin-coupled binuclear iron cluster. J Biol Chem 258:3166–3172
Ljusberg J, Ek-Rylander B, Andersson G (1999) Tartrate-resistant purple acid phosphatase is synthesized as a latent proenzyme and activated by cysteine proteinases. Biochem J 343(Pt 1):63–69
Lam WK, Eastlund DT, Li CY et al (1978) Biochemical properties of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase in serum of adults and children. Clin Chem 24:1105–1108
Janckila AJ, Nakasato YR, Neustadt DH et al (2003) Disease-specific expression of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase isoforms. J Bone Miner Res 18:1916–1919
Andersson G, Lindunger A, Ek-Rylander B (1989) Isolation and characterization of skeletal acid ATPase–a new osteoclast marker? Connect Tissue Res 20:151–158
Lam KW, Yam LT (1977) Biochemical characterization of the tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase of human spleen with leukemic reticuloendotheliosis as a pyrophosphatase. Clin Chem 23:89–94
Schlosnagle DC, Bazer FW, Tsibris JC et al (1974) An iron-containing phosphatase induced by progesterone in the uterine fluids of pigs. J Biol Chem 249:7574–7579
Hayman AR, Warburton MJ, Pringle JA et al (1989) Purification and characterization of a tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase from human osteoclastomas. Biochem J 261:601–609
Lindqvist Y, Johansson E, Kaija H et al (1999) Three-dimensional structure of a mammalian purple acid phosphatase at 2.2 A resolution with a mu-(hydr)oxo bridged di-iron center. J Mol Biol 291:135–147
Kaija H (2002) Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase: three-dimensional structure and structure-based functional studies. Oulu University Press, Oulu
Schenk G, Elliott TW, Leung E et al (2008) Crystal structures of a purple acid phosphatase, representing different steps of this enzyme’s catalytic cycle. BMC Struct Biol 8:6
Barford D, Das AK, Egloff MP (1998) The structure and mechanism of protein phosphatases: insights into catalysis and regulation. Annu Rev Biophys Biomol Struct 27:133–164
Bull H, Murray PG, Thomas D et al (2002) Acid phosphatases. Mol Pathol 55:65–72
Wo YY, McCormack AL, Shabanowitz J et al (1992) Sequencing, cloning, and expression of human red cell-type acid phosphatase, a cytoplasmic phosphotyrosyl protein phosphatase. J Biol Chem 267:10856–10865
Zhang M, Stauffacher CV, Lin D et al (1998) Crystal structure of a human low molecular weight phosphotyrosyl phosphatase. Implications for substrate specificity. J Biol Chem 273:21714–21720
Pandey SK, Yu XX, Watts LM et al (2007) Reduction of low molecular weight protein-tyrosine phosphatase expression improves hyperglycemia and insulin sensitivity in obese mice. J Biol Chem 282:14291–14299
Chiarugi P, Cirri P, Marra F et al (1997) LMW-PTP is a negative regulator of insulin-mediated mitotic and metabolic signalling. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 238:676–682
Maccari R, Ottana R, Ciurleo R et al (2009) Structure-based optimization of benzoic acids as inhibitors of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B and low molecular weight protein tyrosine phosphatase. ChemMedChem 4:957–962
Maccari R, Paoli P, Ottana R et al (2007) 5-Arylidene-2,4-thiazolidinediones as inhibitors of protein tyrosine phosphatases. Bioorg Med Chem 15:5137–5149
Watts NB (2003) Bisphosphonate treatment of osteoporosis. Clin Geriatr Med 19:395–414
Abul-Fadl MA, King EJ (1948) The inhibition of acid phosphatases by formaldehyde and its clinical application for the determination of serum acid phosphatases. J Clin Pathol 1:80–90
Beers SA, Schwender CF, Loughney DA et al (1996) Phosphatase inhibitors–III. Benzylaminophosphonic acids as potent inhibitors of human prostatic acid phosphatase. Bioorg Med Chem 4:1693–1701
Ortlund E, LaCount MW, Lebioda L (2003) Crystal structures of human prostatic acid phosphatase in complex with a phosphate ion and alpha-benzylaminobenzylphosphonic acid update the mechanistic picture and offer new insights into inhibitor design. Biochemistry 42:383–389
Abul-Fadl MA, King EJ (1949) Properties of the acid phosphatases of erythrocytes and of the human prostate gland. Biochem J 45:51–60
Valcour AA, Bowers GN Jr, McComb RB (1989) Evaluation of a kinetic method for prostatic acid phosphatase with use of self-indicating substrate, 2,6-dichloro-4-nitrophenyl phosphate. Clin Chem 35:939–945
Winn SI, Watson HC, Harkins RN et al (1981) Structure and activity of phosphoglycerate mutase. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 293:121–130
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Araujo, C.L., Vihko, P.T. (2013). Structure of Acid Phosphatases. In: Millán, J. (eds) Phosphatase Modulators. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 1053. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-562-0_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-562-0_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ
Print ISBN: 978-1-62703-561-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-62703-562-0
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols