Abstract
In the Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM) there is a gas in the chamber above the sample. This is the crucial difference between it and conventional scanning electron microscopy (CSEM), which permits a wide range of samples to be investigated of a type inaccessible to CSEM. When the gas is water vapour, then damp/wet samples (or even essentially pure water) can be investigated without the need for careful prior specimen preparation to remove all the liquid. This obviously has the advantage that reduction in specimen preparation means a reduction in the liklihood of artefacts being introduced. However, the presence of the gas leads to a variety of new effects due to the interaction of the electrons with the gas molecules. Some of these effects are desirable and, as we will see below, can be usefully harnessed to provide novel sources of contrast. However, other consequences are less desirable, leading to both a reduction in spatial resolution and signal/noise ratio. Hence, in order to optimise use of the ESEM, it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of the potential gas molecule/electron interactions, and their impact on image formation.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Kitching, S., Bache, I. C. and Donald, A. M. (1998) The effect of probe beam scattering on X-ray spatial resolution in the ESEM, Scanning submitted
Thiel, B. L., Hussein-Ismail, M. R. and Donald, A. M. (1997) Effects of space charge on ESEM gas amplification., Microscopy and Microanalyis 3 supp 2, 609–610.
von Engel, A. (1965) Ionised Gases, 2nd edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford
Fletcher, A. L., Thiel, B. L. and Donald, A. M. (1997) Amplification measurements of alternative imaging gases in ESEM, J Phys D 30, 2249–2257.
Moncrieff, D. A., Robinson, V. N. E. and Harris, L. B. (1978) Charge neutralisation of insulating surfaces in the SEM by gas ionisation, J Phys D Appl Phys 11, 2315–2325.
Farley, A. N. and Shah, J. S. (1990) Primary considerations for image enhancement in high-pressure scanning electron microscopy. 1. Electron beam scattering and contrast, J. of Micros. 158, 379–388.
Farley, A. N. and Shah, J. S. (1990) Primary considerations for image enhancement in high-pressure scanning electron microscopy. 2. Image Contrast, J. of Micros. 158, 389–401.
Durkin, R. and Shah, J. S. (1993) Amplification and noise in high-pressure scanning electron microscopy, J Micros 169, 33–51.
Thiel, B., Bache, I. C, Fletcher, A. L., Meredith, P. and Donald, A. M. (1997) An improved model for gaseous amplification in the ESEM, J Micros 187, 143–157.
Danilatos, G.D.(1988) Foundations of environmental scanning electron microscopy, Adv Electronics Electron Phys 71, 109–250.
Forsberg, P. and Lepoutre, P. (1994) ESEM examination of paper in high moisture environment: surface structural changes and electron beam damage, Scanning Microscopy 8, 31–34.
Wight, S., Gillen, G. and Herne, T. (1997) Development of environmental scanning electron microscopy electron beam profile imaging with self-assembled monolayers and secondary ion mass spectroscopy, Scanning 19, 71–74.
Jenkins, L. and Donald, A. M. (1997) Use of the ESEM for the observation of the selling behaviour of cellulosic fibres, Scanning 19, 92–97.
Kitching, S. and Donald, A. M. (1998) Beam damage of polypropylene in the environmental scanning electron microscope: an FTIR study, J Micros, in press.
Howie, A. (1995) Recent developments in secondary electron imaging., J. Microscopy 180, 192–203.
Lange, P., Saas, J. K. and Unwin, R. (1981) Improved analysis of the power law in photoemission yield spectroscopy J Electroanal Chem 122, 387–3
Goulet, T., bernas, A., Ferradini, C. and Jay-Gerin, J.-P. (1990) On the electronic-structure of liquid water-conduction-band tail revealed by photoionization data, Chem Phys Lett 170, 492–496.
Williams, F., Varma, S. P. and Hillenius, S. (1974) J Chem Phys170, 1549–155
Ashok, J. and Varaprasad, L. H. (1991) Handbook of Optical Constants of Solids, ed Palik, E.D., Academic Press.
Birkhoff, R. D., Painter, L. R. and Heller, J. M. J. (1978) J Chem Phys69, 418
Stokes, D. J., Thiel, B. L. and Donald, A. M. (1998) Direct observation of water-oil emulsion systems in the liquid stated by environmental SEM, Langmuir submitted.
Farley, A. N. and Shah, J. (1991) High pressure scanning electron microsopy of insulating materials: a new approach, J Micros 164, 107–125
Bolon, R. B., Robertson, C. D. and Lifshin, E. (1989) The environmental SEM: a new way to look at insulators, Microbeam Analysis, 449–452.
D’Emanuele, A. and Gilpin, C. (1996) Applications of the environmental scanning electron microscope to the analysis of pharmaceutical formulations, Scanning 18, 522–527.
Newbury, D. E. (1996) Imaging deep holes in structures with gaseous secondary-electron detection in the environmental scanning electron microscope, Scanning 18, 474–482.
Devin, J. E., Attawia, M. A. and Laurencin, C. T. (1996) 3-dimensional degradable porous polymer-ceramic matrices for use in bone repair, J Biomaterials Sci-Poly Ed 7, 661–669.
Enea, O., Zaytouni, B. and Moser, J. (1998) Morphological and photoelectrochemical properties of porous, superimposed Au/TiO2 layers, J Appl Electrochem 28, 36–40.
Uwins, P. J. R., Murray, M. and Gould, R. J. (1993) Effects of four different processing techniques on the microstructure of potatoes: comparison with fresh samples in the ESEM, Microscopy Research and Technique 25, 412–418.
Kirk, T. B., Wilson, A. S. and Stachowiak, G. W. (1993) The effects of dehydration on the surface morphology of articular cartilage, J Orthopadic Rheum 6, 75–80.
Kodaka, T., Debari, K., Sato, T. and Tada, T. (1991) ESEM observation of human dentin, J Elect Micros 40,267.
Collins, S. P., Pope, R. K., Scheetz, R. W., Ray, R. I., Wagner, P. A. and Little, B. J. (1993) Advantages of ESEM in studies of microorganisms, Micros Res Tech 25, 398–405.
Little, B., Wagner, P., Ray, R., Pope, R. and Scheetz, R. (1991) Biofilms: an ESEM evaluation of artifacts introduced during SEM preparation, Journal of Industrial Microbiology 8, 213–222.
Eckersley, S. T. and Rudin, A. (1994) Drying behaviour of acrylic latexes, Progress in Organic Coatings 23, 387–402.
Cameron, R. E. and Donald, A. M. (1994) Minimising sample evaporation in the ESEM, J Micros 173, 227–237.
Mehta, S., Jones, R. and Caveny, B. (1994) Cryogenics with cement microscopy redefines cement behaviour, Oil Gas J Oct 94, 47–53.
Jennings, H. M. and Sujata, K. (1992) New experimental techniques for characterizing cement-based materials, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 245
Uchikawa, H., Sawaki, D. and Hanehara, S. (1995) Influence of kind and added timing of organic admixture on the composition, structure and property of fresh cement paste, Cement and Concrete Research 25, 353–364.
Kjellsen, K. O. and Jennings, H. M. (1996) Observations of microcracking in cement paste upon drying and rewetting by environmental scanning electron microscopy, Advn. Cent. Bas. Mat. 3, 14–19.
Lange, D. A., Sujata, K. and Jennings, H. M. (1991) Observations of wet cement using electron microscopy, Ultramicroscopy 37, 234–238.
Su, Z., Sujata, K., Bijen, J. M. J. M., Jennings, H. M. and Fraaij, A. L. A. (1996) The evolution of the microstructure in styrene acrylate polymer-modified cement pastes at the early stage of cement hydration., Adv Cem Bas Mat 3, 87–93.
Hall, C, Hoff, W. D., Taylor, S. C, Wilson, M. A., Yoon, B.-G., Reinhardt, H. W., Sororo, M., Meredith, P. and Donald, A. M. (1995) Water anomaly in capillary liquid absorption by cement-based materials, J. Materials Science Letters 14, 1178–1181.
Meredith, P., Donald, A. M. and Luke, K. (1995) Pre-induction and induction hydration of tricalcium silicate: an environmental scanning electron microscopy study., J Mat Sci. 39, 1921–1930.
Shah, J. and Durkin, R. (1991) Monte carlo simulation of back scattered electron trajectories from wet organic surfaces, IOP Conference Series 119, 161–164.
Parra, R. E. d. l. (1993) A method to detect variations in the wetting properties of microporous polymer membranes, Microscopy Res. & Techn. 25, 362–373.
Liukkonen, A. (1997) Contact angle of water on paper comonents: sessile drops versus ESEM measurements, Scanning 19, 411–415.
Doehne, E. and Stulik, D. C. (1990) Applications of the environmental scanning electron microscope to conservation science, Scanning Microscopy 4, 275–286.
Lavoie, D. M., Little, B. J., Ray, R. I., Bennett, R. H., Lambert, M. W., Asper, V. and Baerwald, R. J. (1995) Environmental scanning electron microscopy of marine aggregates, Journal of Microscopy 178, 101–106.
Meredith, P., Donald, A. M. and Payne, R. S. (1996) Freeze drying: in situ observations using cryoESEM and DSC, J Pharm Sci 85, 631–637.
Uwins, P. J. R. (1994) Environmental scanning electron microscopy, Materials Forum 18, 51–75.
He, C. and Donald, A. M. (1996) Morphology of core-shell polymer latices during drying., Langmuir 12, 6250–6256.
Sheehan, J. G. and Scriven, L. E. (1991) Assessment of environmental scanning electron microscopy for coating research, 337–383.
Meredith, P. and Donald, A. M. (1996) Study of ‘wet’ polymer latex systems in environmental scanning electron microscopy: some imaging considerations., J Micros 181, 23–35.
Keddie, J., Meredith, P., Jones, R.A.L. and Donald, A.M. (1996) Rate-limiting steps in the film formation of water-borne acrylic latices as elucidated with ellipsometry and environmental-SEM. ACS Monograph Series 648, 332–3
Keddie, J., Meredith, P., Jones, R.A.L. and Donald, A.M. (1996) Film formation of acrylic latices with varying concentrations of non-film forming particles., Langmuir 12, 3793–3801.
Kalnas, C. E., Mansfield, J. F., Was, G. S. and Jones, J. W. (1994) In situ bend fixture for deformation and fracture studies in the environmental scanning electron microscope, J. Vac. Sci. Techno. A 12(3), 883–885.
He, C., Butler, M. F. and Donald, A. M. (1998) In situ deformation of rubber toughened PMMA: influence of rubber particle concentration and cross linking density, Macromols 31, 158–164.
Thiel, B. L. and Donald, A. M. (1998) In situ mechanical testing of fully hydrated carrots (Daucus carota) in the ESEM, Annals of Botany submitted.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Donald, A.M., Thiel, B.L. (1999). ESEM Image Contrast and Applications to Wet Organic Materials. In: Rickerby, D.G., Valdrè, G., Valdrè, U. (eds) Impact of Electron and Scanning Probe Microscopy on Materials Research. NATO Science Series, vol 364. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-4451-3_20
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-4451-3_20
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-0-7923-5940-1
Online ISBN: 978-94-011-4451-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive