Skip to main content

Fungal Infections of the Central Nervous System

  • Chapter
Progress in Mycology

Abstract

There are four main causes of infections of the central nervous system (CNS). These include bacterial, viral, fungal, and protozoal agents. Bacterial infections can be caused by pyogenic organisms, or may be due to mycobacteria or spirochetes. Bacterial infections, particularly those due to pyogenic organisms, may lead to meningitis, brain abscess, epidural or subdural abscesses. Viral infections may also lead to meningitis, or can cause encephalitis, or myelitis. Protozoal infections that may affect the brain include toxoplasmosis, malaria, and amoebiasis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Reference

  • Abbas, Z., W. Jafri, S. Rasool, S. Abid and I. Hameed (2007). Mucormycosis in patients with complicated cirrhosis, Singapore Med J. 48(1):69–73.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abbott, S.P., L. Sigler, R. McAleer, D.A. McGough, M.G. Rinaldi and G. Mizell (1995). Fatal cerebral mycoses caused by the ascomycete Chaetomium strumarium, J Clin Microbiol. 33(10):2692–2698.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adam, R.D., M.L. Paquin, E.A. Petersen, M.A. Saubolle, M.G. Rinaldi, J.G. Corcoran, J.N. Galgiani, and R.E. Sobonya (1986). Phaeohyphomycosis caused by the fungal genera Bipolaris and Exserohilum. A report of 9 cases and review of the literature, Medicine (Baltimore). 65(4):203–217.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akamatsu, N., Y. Sugawara, J. Nakajima, Y. Kishi, J. Kaneko and M. Makuuchi(2005). Cryptococcosis after living donor liver transplantation: report of three cases, Transpl Infect Dis. 7(1):26–29.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alapatt, J. P., R.K. Kutty, P. P. Gopi and J. Challissery (2006). Middle and posterior fossa aspergilloma, Surg Neurol. 66(1):75–8; discussion 78-9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • al-Hedaithy, S.S., Z.A. Jamjoom and E.S. Saeed(1998). Cerebral phaeohyphomycosis caused by Fonsecaea pedrosoi in Saudi Arabia. APMIS Suppl. 3:94–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alobid, I., M. Bernal, C. Calvo, I. Vilaseca, J. Berenguer and L. Alys (2001). Treatment of rhinocerebral mucormycosis by combination of endoscopic sinus debridement and amphotericin B, Am JRhinol. 15(5):327–331.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alrajhi, A.A., M. Enani, Z. Mahasin and K. Al-Omran (2001). Chronic invasive aspergillosis of the paranasal sinuses in immunocompetent hosts from Saudi Arabia, Am J Trop Med Hyg. 65(1):83–86.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez, M., B. Lopez Ponga, C. Rayon, J. Garcia Gala, M.C. Roson Porto, M. Gonzalez, J.V. Martinez-Suarez and J.L. Rodriguez-Tudela (1995). Nosocomial outbreak caused by Scedosporium prolificans (inflatum): four fatal cases in leukemic patients, J Clin Microbiol. 33(12):3290–3295.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amr, S.S. and J.A. Al-Tawfiq (2007). Aspiration cytology of brain abscess from a fatal case of cerebral phaeohyphomycosis due to Ramichloridium mackenziei, Diagn Cytopathol. 35(11):695–699.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ashdown, B.C., R.D. Tien, and G.J. Felsberg (1994). Aspergillosis of the brain and paranasal sinuses in immunocompromised patients: CT and MR imaging findings, AJR Am J Roentgenol. 162(1):155–159.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Assi, M.A., M.S. Sandid, L.M. Baddour, G.D. Roberts and R.C. Walker (2007). Systemic histoplasmosis: a 15-year retrospective institutional review of 111 patients, Medicine (Baltimore). 86(3): 162–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Attapattu, MC. (1995). Acute rhinocerebral mucormycosis caused by Rhizopus arrhizus from Sri Lanka, J Trop Med Hyg. 98(5):355–358.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Azizirad, O., D.B. Clifford, R.K. Groger, D. Prelutsky and R.E. Schmidt (2007). Histoplasmoma: isolated central nervous system infection with Histoplasma capsulatum in a patient with AIDS. Case report and brief review of the literature, Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 109(2): 176–181.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baddley, J.W., S.A. Moser, D.A. Sutton and P.G. Pappas (2000). Microascus cinereus (Anamorph scopulariopsis) brain abscess in a bone marrow transplant recipient, J Clin Microbiol. 38(1):395–397.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baddley, J.W., D. Salzman and P.G. Pappas (2002).Fungal brain abscess in transplant recipients: epidemiologic, microbiologic, and clinical features, Clin Transplant. 16(6):419–424.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakleh, M., A.J. Aksamit, I.M. Tleyjeh and W.F. Marshall(2005). Successful treatment of cerebral blastomycosis with voriconazole,Clin Infect Dis. 40(9):e69–e71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bamberger, D.M. (1999). Successful treatment of multiple cerebral histoplasmomas with itraconazole, Clin Infect Dis. 28(4):915–916.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bañuelos, A.F., P.L. Williams, R.H. Johnson, S. Bibi, D.N. Fredricks, S.A. Gilroy, S.U. Bhatti, J. Aguet and D.A. Stevens (1996). Central nervous system abscesses due to Coccidioides species, Clin Infect Dis. 22(2):240–250.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barbaric, D. and P.J. Shaw (2001). Scedosporium infection in immunocompromised patients: successful use of liposomal amphotericin B and itraconazole, Med Pediatr Oncol. 37(2): 122–125.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barron, M.A., M. Lay and N.E. Madinger (2005). Surgery and treatment with high-dose liposomal amphotericin B for eradication of craniofacial zygomycosis in a patient with Hodgkin’s disease who had undergone allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, J Clin Microbiol. 43(4):2012–2014.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benzel, E.C., J.W. King, M. Mirfakhraee, B.C. West, R.P. Misra and T.A. Hadden (1986). Blastomycotic meningitis, Surg Neurol. 26(2): 192–196.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berenguer, J., J.L. Rodriguez-Tudela, C. Richard, M. Alvarez, M.A. Sanz, L. Gaztelurrutia, J. Ayats and J.V. Martinez-Suarez (1997). Deep infections caused by Scedosporium prolificans. A report on 16 cases in Spain and a review of the literature.Scedosporium Prolificans Spanish Study Group, Medicine (Baltimore). 76(4):256–265.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berenguer, J., J. Solera, S. Moreno, P.M. Noz and F. Parras (1990). Mucormycosis. The disease spectrum in 13 patients, Med Gin (Barc). 94(20):766–772.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bhansali, A., S. Bhadada, A. Sharma, V. Suresh, A. Gupta, P. Singh, A. Chakarbarti, and R.J. Dash (2004). Presentation and outcome of rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis in patients with diabetes, Postgrad Med J. 80(949):670–674.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhat, S.V., D.L. Paterson, M.G. Rinaldi and P.J. Veldkamp (2007). Scedosporium prolificans brain abscess in a patient with chronic granulomatous disease: successful combination therapy with voriconazole and terbinafine, Scand J Infect Dis. 39(1):87–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Binford, C.H., RK. Thompson and M.E. Gorham (1952). Mycotic brain abscess due to Cladosporium trichoides, a new species; report of a case, Am J Clin Pathol. 22(6):535–542.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blázquez, R., A. Pinedo, J. Cosín, P. Miralles, C. Lacruz and E. Bouza (1996). Nonsurgical cure of isolated cerebral mucormycosis in an intravenous drug user, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 15(7):598–599.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boelaert, J.R., M. deLocht and J.V. Cutsem (1993). Desferroxamine: its effects on the growth of micro-organisms in vitro and in experimental infections, Rev Med Microbiol. 4:171–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonham, C.A., E.A. Dominguez, M.B. Fukui, D.L. Paterson, G.A. Pankey, M.M. Wagener, J.J. Fung and N. Singh (1998). Central nervous system lesions in liver transplant recipients: prospective assessment of indications for biopsy and implications for management, Transplantation. 66(12): 1596–1604.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borgia, S.M., J.D. Fuller, A. Sarabia and P. El-Helou (2006). Cerebral blastomycosis: a case series incorporating voriconazole in the treatment regimen, Med Mycol. 44(7):659–664..

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Botha, R.J. and E. Wessels (1999). Cryptococcal meningitis in an HIV negative patient with systemic sarcoidosis, J Clin Pathol. 52(12):928–930.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, M.E. and D.W. Warnock (2003). Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and therapy of infections caused by dematiaceous fungi, J Chemother. 15 Suppl 2:36–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brennan, R.O., B.J. Crain, A.M. Proctor and D.T. Durack(1983). Cunninghamella: a newly recognized cause of rhinocerebral mucormycosis, Am J Clin Pathol. 80(1):98–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bronster, D.J., S. Emre, P. Boccagni, P.A. Sheiner, M.E. Schwartz and C.M. Miller (2000).Central nervous system complications in liver transplant recipients-incidence, timing, and long-term follow-up, Clin Transplant. 14(1): 1–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burgert, S.J., D.C. Classen, J.P. Burke and D.D. Blatter (1995). Candidal brain abscess associated with vascular invasion: a devastating complication of vascular catheterrelated candidemia, Clin Infect Dis. 21(1):202–205.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buzina, W., G. Feierl, D. Haas, F.F. Reinthaler, A. Holl, R. Kleinert, B. Reichenpfader, P. Roll and E. Marth (2006). Lethal brain abscess due to the fungus Scedosporium apiospermum (teleomorph Pseudallescheria boydii) after a near-drowning incident: case report and review of the literature, Med Mycol. 44(5):473–477.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Camarata, P.J., D.L. Dunn, A.C. Farney, R.G. Parker and E.L. Seljeskog (1992). Continual intracavitary administration of amphotericin B as an adjunct in the treatment of Aspergillus brain abscess: case report and review of the literature, Neurosurgery. 31(3):575–579.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, C. and S. Al-Hedaithy (1993). Phaeohyphomycosis of the brain caused by Ramichloridium mackenzei spp. in Middle Eastern Countries, J Med Vet Mycol. 31 (4):325–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, E. and C. Boudreaux (2004). Fatal cerebral phaeohyphomycosis due to Curvularia lunata in an immunocompetent patient, J Clin Microbiol. 42(11):5419–5423.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casado, J.L., C. Quereda, J. Oliva, E. Navas, A. Moreno, V. Pintado, J. Cobo and I. Corral (1997). Candidal meningitis in HIV-infected patients: analysis of 14 cases, Clin Infect Dis. 25(3):673–676.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • a-Chandler, F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack (1997). Aspergillosis. In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Volume Set), 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p.933–942.

    Google Scholar 

  • b-.Chandler, F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack (1997). Zygomycosis. In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Vol. Set). 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 1113–1120.

    Google Scholar 

  • c-Chandler, F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack (1997). Phaeohyphomycosis. In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Vol. Set). 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 1059–1066.

    Google Scholar 

  • d-Chandler, F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack (1997). Cryptoccosis. In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Vol. Set). 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 989–998.

    Google Scholar 

  • e-Chandler, F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack Candidiasis. (1997). In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Volume Set). 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 953–964.

    Google Scholar 

  • f-Chandler, F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack (1997). Histoplasmosis. In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Vol. Set). 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 1007–1022..

    Google Scholar 

  • g-Chandler, F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack (1997). Coccidioidomycosis. In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Vol. Set). 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 977–988.

    Google Scholar 

  • h-Chandler, F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack (1997). Blastomycosis. In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Volume Set). 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 943–952..

    Google Scholar 

  • i-Chandler, F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack (1997). Paracqccidioidomycosis. In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Vol. Set). 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 1045–1054.

    Google Scholar 

  • j-Chandler F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack (1997). Sporotrichosis. In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Volume Set). 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p.1089–1096.

    Google Scholar 

  • k-Chandler, F.W., H.J. Manz and E.E. Lack (1997). Penicilliosis marneffei. In: Pathology of Infectious Diseases (2 Vol. Set). 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 1055–1058.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, C.L., D.S. Kim, D.J. Park, H.J. Kim, C.H. Lee and J.H. Shin (2000). Acute cerebral phaeohyphomycosis due to Wangiella dermatitidis accompanied by cerebrospinal fluid eosinophilia, J Clin Microbiol. 38(5):1965–1966.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiller, T.M., J.N. Galgiani and D.A. Stevens (2003). Coccidioidomycosis, Infect Dis Clin North Am. 17(1):41–57.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, Y.S., D.K. Lee, S.D. Hong and W.S. Oh (2007). Intracranial aspergillosis involving the internal auditory canal and inner ear in an immunocompetent patient, AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 28(1):138–140.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chowfin, A., R. Tightand and S. Mitchell (2000). Recurrent blastomycosis of the central nervous system: case report and review, Clin Infect Dis. 30(6):969–971.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chuck, S.L. and M.A. Sande (1989). Infections with Cryptococcus neoformans in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, N Engl J Med. 321(12):794–799.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cocanour, C.S., P. Miller-Crotchett, R.L. Reed, P.C. Johnson, and R.P. Fischer (1992). Mucormycosis in trauma patients, J Trauma. 32(1): 12–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collazos, J. (2003). Opportunistic infections of the CNS in patients with AIDS: diagnosis and management, CNS Drugs. 17(12):869–887.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cornell, S.H. and C.G. Jacoby (1982). The varied computed tomographic appearance of intracranial cryptococcosis, Radiology. 143(3):703–707.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunha, B.A. (2001). Central nervous system infections in the compromised host: a diagnostic approach, Infect Dis Clin North Am. 15(2):567–590.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, L. and B. Porter (2005). Central Nervous System Coccidioides immitis Infections, Curr Treat Options Neurol. 7(2):157–165.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Almeida, S.M. (2005). Central nervous system paracoccidioidomycosis: an overview, Braz J Infect Dis. 9(2):126–133.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Almeida, S.M., F. Queiroz-Telles, H.A.G. Teive, C.E.L. Ribeiro and L.C. Werneck (2004). Central nervous system paracoccidioidomycosis: clinical features and laboratorial findings, J Infect. 48(2): 193–198.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deb, S., A.K. Khan, B. Debasish and B. Subroto (2005). Intracranial necrotizing granuloma caused by Cladophialophora bantiana, Neurol India. 53(3):335–336.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delbrouck, C., F. Jacobs, S.F. Aguilar, B. Devroede, G. Choufaniand S. Hassid (2004). Carotid artery occlusion due to fulminant rhinocerebral mucormycosis, Acta Otorhinolaryngol Belg. 58(2): 135–140.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeLone, D.R., R.A. Goldstein, G. Petermann, M.S. Salamat, J.M. Miles, S.J. Knechtle and W.D. Brown (1999). Disseminated aspergillosis involving the brain: distribution and imaging characteristics, AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 20(9): 1597–1604.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • del Pozo, M.M., F. Bermejo, J.A. Molina, E.C. de la Fuente, P. Martinez-Martin and J. Benito-León (1998). Chronic neutrophilic meningitis caused by Candida albicans, Neurologia. 13(7):362–366.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Medeiros, B.C., C.R. de Medeiros, B. Werner, J.Z. Neto, G. Loddo, R. Pasquini and L.F. Bleggi-Torres (2000). Central nervous system infections following bone marrow transplantation: an autopsy report of 27 cases, J Hematother Stem Cell Res. 9(4):535–540.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deshpande, A.H. and M.M. Munshi (2000). Rhinocerebral mucormycosis diagnosis by aspiration cytology, Diagn Cytopathol. 23(2):97–100.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dismukes, W.E. (1988). Cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS, J Infect Dis. 157(4):624–628.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, D.M. and A. Polak-Wyss (1991). The medically important dematiaceous fungi and their identification, Mycoses. 34(1-2): 1–18.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, D.M., T.J. Walsh, W.G. Merz and M.R. McGinnis (1989). Infections due to Xylohypha bantiana (Cladosporium trichoides), Rev Infect Dis. 11(4):515–525.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donabedian, H., E. O’Donnell, C. Olszewski, R.D. MacArthur and N. Budd (1994). Disseminated cutaneous and meningeal sporotrichosis in an AIDS patient, Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 18(2):111–115.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dotis, J., E. Iosifidis and E. Roilides(2007). Central nervous system aspergillosis in children: a systematic review of reported cases, Int J Infect Dis. 11(5):381–393.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dotis, J. and E. Roilides (2007). Immunopathogenesis of central nervous system fungal infections, Neurol India. 55(3):216–220.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubey, A., R.V. Patwardhan, S. Sampth, V. Santosh, S. Kolluri and A. Nanda (2005). Intracranial fungal granuloma: analysis of 40 patients and review of the literature, Surg Neurol. 63(3):254–260.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dworzack, D.L., R.B. Clark, W.J. Borkowski, D.L. Smith, M. Dykstra, M.P. Pugsley, E.A. Horowitz, T.L. Connolly, D.L. McKinney, M.K. Hostetler, J.F. Fitzgibbons, and M. Galant (1989). Pseudallescheria boydii brain abscess: association with neardrowning and efficacy of high-dose, prolonged miconazole therapy in patients with multiple abscesses, Medicine (Baltimore). 68(4):218–224.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ebright, J.R., P.H. Chandrasekar, S. Marks, M. R. Fairfax, A. Aneziokoro and M. R. McGinnis (1999). Invasive sinusitis and cerebritis due to Curvularia clavata in an immunocompetent adult, Clin Infect Dis. 28(3):687–689.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elias, J., A.C. dos Santos, C.G. Carlotti, B.O. Colli, A. Canheu, C. Matias, L. Furlanetti, R. Martinez, O.M. Takayanagui, A.C. Sakamoto, L.N. Serafini and L. Chimelli (2005). Central nervous system paracoccidioidomycosis: diagnosis and treatment, SurgNeurol. 63 Suppl 1:S13–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, D.H. and T. J. Pfeiffer (1990). Natural habitat of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii, J Clin Microbiol. 28(7): 1642–1644.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erly, W.K., R.J. Bellon, J.F. Seeger and R.F. Carmody (1999). MR imaging of acute coccidioidal meningitis, AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 20(3):509–514.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eucker, J., O. Sezer, B. Graf and K. Possinger (2001). Mucormycoses, Mycoses. 44(7-8):253–260.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eucker, J., O. Sezer, R. Lehmann, J.R. Weber, B. Graf, C. Denkert, W. Brück, M. Schweigert and K. Possinger (2000). Disseminated mucormycosis caused by Absidia corymbifera leading to cerebral vasculitis, Infection. 28(4):246–250.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fairley, C., T.J. Sullivan, P. Bartley, T. Allworth and R. Lewandowski. (2000). Survival after rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis in an immunocompetent patient, Ophthalmology. 107(3):555–558.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, B.J., T.G. Mitchell, R. Moon, E.M. Camporesi and J. Farmer (1988). Adjunctive hyperbaric oxygen for treatment of rhinocerebral mucormycosis, Rev Infect Dis. 10(3):551–559.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez, M., E.H. Moylett, D.E. Noyola and C.J. Baker (2000). Candidal meningitis in neonates: a 10-year review, Clin Infect Dis. 31(2):458–463.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferry, A.P. and S. Abedi(1983). Diagnosis and management of rhino-orbitocerebral mucormycosis (phycomycosis). A report of 16 personally observed cases, Ophthalmology. 90(9): 1096–1104.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Filizzola, M.J., F. Martinez and S.J. Rauf (2003). Phaeohyphomycosis of the central nervous system in immunocompetent hosts: report of a case and review of the literature, Int J Infect Dis. 7(4):282–286.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, J.A., E.F. Wijdicks, J.R. Fulgham and A.J. Wright (2000). Meningoenc-ephalitis due to Blastomyces dermatitidis: case report and literature review, Mayo Clin Proc. 75(4):403–408.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fujita, N., V. Grinnell, J.E. Edwards and R.A. Feldman (1980). Management of central nervous system cryptococcosis, West J Med. 132(2): 123–133.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gabelmann, A., S. Klein, W. Kern, S. Krüger, H.J. Brambs, A. Rieber-Brambs, H.J. Brambs and A. Aschoff (2007). Relevant imaging findings of cerebral aspergillosis on MRI: a retrospective case-based study in immunocompromised patients, Eur J Neurol. 14(5):548–555.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galgiani, J.N. (1993). Coccidioidomycosis, West J Med. 159(2):153–171.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, R.J., P. Troya and C. Edwards (2006). Invasive aspergillosis with central nervous system dissemination in a presumably immunocompetent, non-neutropenic patient: case report and review, South Med J. 99(6):607–610.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Covarrubias, L., R. Bartlett, D.M. Barratt and R.J. Wassermann (2001). Rhino-orbitocerebral mucormycosis attributable to Apophysomyces elegans in an immunocompetent individualxase report and review of the literature, J Trauma. 50(2):353–357.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gartenberg, G., E.J. Bottone, G.T. Keusch and I. Weitzman (1978). Hospital-acquired mucormycosis (Rhizopus rhizopodiformis) of skin and subcutaneous tissue: epidemiology, mycology and treatment, N Engl J Med. 299(20):1115–1118.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geers, T.A. and S.M. Gordon (1999). Clinical significance of Candida species isolated from cerebrospinal fluid following neurosurgery, Clin Infect Dis. 28(5): 1139–1147.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gelston, C.D., V.D. Durairaj and E.A.F. Simoes (2007). Rhino-orbital mucormycosis causing cavernous sinus and internal carotid thrombosis treated with posaconazole, Arch Ophthalmol. 125(6): 848–849.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gonis, G. and M. Starr (1997). Fatal rhinoorbital mucormycosis caused by Saksenaea vasiformis in an immunocompromised child, Pediatr Infect Dis J. 16(7):714–716.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guppy, K.H., C. Thomas, K. Thomas and D. Anderson (1998). Cerebral fungal infections in the immunocompromised host: a literature review and a new pathogen-Chaetomium atrobrunneum: case report, Neurosurgery. 43(6): 1463–1469.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halde, C. and M.A. Fraher (1966). Cryptococcus neoformans in pigeon feces in San Francisco, Calif Med. 104(3): 188–190.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hardman, S., I. Stephenson, D.R. Jenkins, M.J. Wiselka and E.M. Johnson (2005). Disseminated Sporothix schenckii in a patient with AIDS, J Infect. 51(3):e73–e77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harril, W.C., M.G. Stewart, A.G. Lee and P. Cernoch (1996). Chronic rhinocerebral mucormycosis, Laryngoscope. 106(10): 1292–1297.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, A.P., D.A. Sutton, P.J. McFeeley and M. Kornfeld(2001). Cerebral phaeohyphomycosis caused by a dematiaceous scopulariopsis species, Clin Neuropathol. 20(5):224–228.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hejny, C., J.B. Kerrison, N.J. Newman and C.M. Stone (2001). Rhino-orbital mucormycosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and neutropenia, Am J Ophthalmol. 132(1): 111–112.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hofman, P., M. Gari-Toussaint, C. De Bievre, J.F. Michiels, F.A. d’Horpock and R. Loubiere (1993). Rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis caused by Rhizopus oryzae.A typical case in a cirrhotic patient, Ann Pathol. 13(3):180–183.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hofman, V., L. Castillo, F. Betis, N. Guevara, M. Gari-Toussaint and P. Hofman(2003). Usefulness of frozen section in rhinocerebral mucormycosis diagnosis and management, Pathology. 35(3):212–216.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, R.J., M. Rothman, A. Fiore and S.E. Goldblum (1994). Cerebral mucormycosis associated with intravenous drug use: three case reports and review, Clin Infect Dis. 19(6):1133–1137.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hott, J.S., E. Horn, V.K.H. Sonntag, S.W. Coons and A. Shetter (2003). Intramedullary histoplasmosis spinal cord abscess in a nonendemic region: case report and review of the literature, J Spinal Disord Tech. 16(2):212–215.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Husain, S., P. Muñoz, G. Forrest, B.D. Alexander, J. Somani, K. Brennan, M.M. Wagener and N. Singh (2005). Infections due to Scedosporium apiospermum and Scedosporium prolificans in transplant recipients: clinical characteristics and impact of antifimgal agent therapy on outcome, Clin Infect Dis. 40(1):89–99.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Husain, S., M.M. Wagener and N. Singh (2001). Cryptococcus neoformans infection in organ transplant recipients: variables influencing clinical characteristics and outcome, Emerg Infect Dis. 7(3):375–381.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Inamasu, J., K. Uchida, K. Mayanagi, S. Suga and T. Kawase (2000). Basilar artery occlusion due to mucormycotic emboli, preceded by acute hydrocephalus, Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 102(1):18–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jamjoom, A.B., S.A. al Hedaithy, Z.A. Jamjoom, M. al Hedaithy, S.F. el Watidy, N. Rahman and M. al-Moallem (1995). Intracranial mycotic infections in neurosurgical practice, Acta Neurochir (Wien). 137(1-2):78–84.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, E.V., L.B. Kline, B.A. Julian and J.H. Garcia (1988). Bilateral cavernous sinus thrombosis due to mucormycosis, Arch Ophthalmol. 106(8): 1089–1092.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanaly, C.W., L.A. Selznick, T.J. Cummings and D.C. Adamson (2007). Cerebellar cryptococcoma in a patient with undiagnosed sarcoidosis: case report, Neurosurgery. 60(3):E571; discussion E571.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaneko, T., F. Abe, M. Ito, M. Hotchi, K. Yamada and Y. Okada (1991). Intestinal mucormycosis in a hemodialysis patient treated with desferrioxamine, Acta Pathol Jpn. 41(7):561–566.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanj, S.S., S.S. Amr, G.D. Roberts. (2001). Ramichloridium mackenziei brain abscess: report of two cases and review of the literature, Med Mycol. 39(1):97–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kantarcioglu, A.S. and G.S. de Hoog (2004). Infections of the central nervous system by melanized fungi: a review of cases presented between 1999 and 2004, Mycoses. 47(1-2):4–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kashgari, T.Q., H. Al-Miniawi and M.K.M. Hanna (2000). Cerebral phaeohyphomycosis caused by Ramichloridium mackenziei in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia, Ann Saudi Med. 20(5-6):457–460.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerkmann, M.L., R. Blaschke-Hellmessen and H.D. Mikulin (1994). Successful treatment of cerebral aspergillosis by stereotactic operation and antifungal therapy, Mycoses. 37(3-4): 123–126.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khan, Z.U., S.J. Lamdhade, M. Johny, J. Al-Khalidi, A. Thussu, H.N. Yossef, I. Al-Obaid and A.A. Nasser (2002). Additional case of Ramichloridium mackenziei cerebral phaeohyphomycosis from the Middle East, Med Mycol. 40(4):429–433.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khor, B.S., M.H. Lee, H.S. Leu and J.W. Liu (2003). Rhinocerebral mucormycosis in Taiwan, J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 36(4):266–269.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, C.J., R.P. Dinapoli, Z. Temesgen and F.B. Meyer (1999). Central nervous system histoplasmosis mimicking a brain tumor: difficulties in diagnosis and treatment, Mayo Clin Proc. 74(8):803–807.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinschmidt-DeMasters, B.K. (2002). Central nervous system aspergillosis: a 20-year retrospective series, Hum Pathol. 33(1): 116–124.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinschmidt-DeMasters, B.K., M. Mazowiecki, L.A. Bonds, D.L. Cohn and M.L. Wilson (2000). Coccidioidomycosis meningitis with massive dural and cerebral venous thrombosis and tissue arthroconidia, Arch Pathol Lab Med. 124(2):310–314.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, S., M. Turnherr, G. Dekan, B. Willinger, G. Stingl and A. Rieger (1999). A case of HIV-associated cerebral histoplasmosis successfully treated with fluconazole, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 18(9):658–661

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kofteridis, D.P., S. Karabekios, J.G. Panagiotides, J. Bizakis, D. Kyrmizakis, Z. Saridaki and A. Gikas (2003). Successful treatment of rhinocerebral mucormycosis with liposomal amphotericin B and surgery in two diabetic patients with renal dysfunction, J Chemother. 15(3):282–286.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korfel, A., H.D. Menssen, S. Schwartz and E. Thiel (1998). Cryptococcosis in Hodgkin’s disease: description of two cases and review of the literature, Ann Hematol. 76(6):283–286.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kowacs, P.A., C.E.S. Silvado, S.M. de Ahneida, M. Ramos, K. Abrão, L.E. Madaloso, R.L. Pinheiro and L.C. Werneck (2004). Infection of the CNS by Scedosporium apiospermum after near drowning. Report of a fatal case and analysis of its confounding factors, J Clin Pathol. 57(2):205–207.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kubota, N., K. Miyazawa, N. Shoji M. Sumi, A. Nakajima, Y. Kimura, H. Oshiro, Y. Ebihara and K. Ohyashiki(2003). A massive intraventricular thrombosis by disseminated mucormycosis in a patient with myelodysplastic syndrome during deferoxamine therapy, Haematologica. 88(11):EIM13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kurup, A., Y. S. Leo, A. L. Tan and S. Y. Wong (1999). Disseminated Penicillium marneffei infection: a report of five cases in Singapore, Ann Acad Med Singapore. 28(4):605–609.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kwon-Chung, K.J. (1976). Morphogenesis of Filobasidiella neoformans, the sexual state of Cryptococcus neoformans, Mycologia. 68(4):821–833.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lanjewar, D.N., P.P. Jain and C.R. Shetty (1998). Profile of central nervous system pathology in patients with AIDS: an autopsy study from India. AIDS. 12(3): 309–313.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latham, R.H. (2000). Bipolaris spicifera meningitis complicating a neurosurgerical procedure, Scand J Infect Dis. 32(1):102–103.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Y.M., P.A. Tambyah, K.H. Lee, K.C. Tan and S.G. Lim (2003). Successful treatment of Xylohypha bantiana brain abscess mimicking invasive cerebral aspergillosis in a liver transplant recipient, J Infect. 47(4):348–351.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liang, K.P., I.M. Tleyjeh, W.R. Wilson, G.D. Roberts and Z. Temesgen (2006). Rhinoorbitocerebral mucormycosis caused by Apophysomyces elegans, J Clin Microbiol. 44(3):892–898.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J.S., Y.Y. Chang, W.H. Chen and S.S. Chen (1995). Amphotericin B-induced leukoencephalopathy in a patient with cryptococcal meningitis, J Formos Med Assoc. 94(7):432–434.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Livas, I.C., P.S. Nechay and W.M. Nauseef (1995). Clinical evidence of spinal and cerebral histoplasmosis twenty years after renal transplantation Clin Infect Dis. 20(3):692–695.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mamidi, A., J.A. DeSimone and R.J. Pomerantz (2002). Central nervous system infections in individuals with HIV-1 infection, J Neurovirol. 8(3): 158–167.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maniglia, A.J., D.H. Mintz and S. Novak(1982). Cephalic phycomycosis: a report of eight cases, Laryngoscope. 92(7 Pt 1):755–760.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, T.C., D. Born and T.L. Tredway (2006). Spinal intramedullary histoplasmosis as the initial presentation of human immunodeficiency virus infection: case report, Neurosurgery. 59(5):E1146.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marin, J., M.A. Sanz, G.F. Sanz, J. Guarro, M.L. Martinez, M. Prieto, E. Gueho and J.L. Menezo (1991). Disseminated Scedosporium inflatum infection in a patient with acute myeloblastic leukemia, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 10(9):759–761.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mattiuzzi, G. and F.J. Giles (2005). Management of intracranial fungal infections in patients with haematological malignancies, Br J Haematol. 131(3): 287–300.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCullers, J.A., S.L. Vargas, P.M. Flynn, B.I. Razzouk and J.L. Shenep (2000). Candidal meningitis in children with cancer, Clin Infect Dis. 31(2):451–457.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDonough, E.S., A.L. Lewis and L.A. Penn (1966).Relationship of Cryptococcus neoformans to pigeons in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Public Health Rep. 81(12):1119–1123.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendel, E., E.N. Milefchik, J. Ahmadi and P. Gruen (1994). Coccidioidomycotic brain abscess. Case report, J Neurosurg. 80(1): 140–142.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyers, B.R., G. Wormser, S.Z. Hirschman and A. Blitzer (1979). Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: premortem diagnosis and therapy. Arch Intern Med. 139(5):557–560.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Middelhof, C.A., W.G. Loudon, M.D. Muhonen, C. Xavier and C.S. Greene (2005). Improved survival in central nervous system aspergillosis: a series of immuno-compromised children with leukemia undergoing stereotactic resection of aspergillomas. Report of four cases, J Neurosurg. 103(4 Suppl.): 374–378.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, P.S. and H.V. Vinters (1995). Coccidioidomycosis of the central nervous system: neuropathological and vasculopathic manifestations and clinical correlates, Clin Infect Dis. 20(2):400–405.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, T.G. and J.R. Perfect (1995). Cryptococcosis in the era of AIDS-100 years after the discovery of Cryptococcus neoformans, Clin Microbiol Rev. 8(4):515–548.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mnif, N., E. Hmaied, S. Oueslati, H. Rajhi, R. Hamza, M. Marrakchi, N. Kaffel, H. Kooli, M. Ben Salah and M. Ferjaoui (2005). Imaging of rhinocerebral mucormycosis, J Radiol. 86(9 Pt 1): 1017–1020.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mohindra, S., S. Mohindra, R. Gupta, J. Bakshi and S.K. Gupta(2007). Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: the disease spectrum in 27 patients, Mycoses. 50(4):290–296.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Montero, A., J. Romero, J.A. Vargas, C.A. Regueiro, G. Sánchez-Aloz, F. De Prados, A. De la Torre and G. Aragón (2000). Candida infection of cerebrospinal fluid shunt devices: report of two cases and review of the literature, Acta Neurochir (Wien). 142(1):67–74.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mursch, K., S. Trnovec, H. Ratz, D. Hammer, R. Horré, A. Klinghammer, S. de Hoog and J. Behnke-Mursch (2006). Successful treatment of multiple Pseudallescheria boydii brain abscesses and ventriculitis/ependymitis in a 2-year-old child after a near-drowning episode, Childs Nerv Syst. 22(2): 189–192.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murthy, J.M., C. Sundaram, V.S. Prasad, A.K. Purohit, S. Rammurti and V. Laxmi (2000). Aspergillosis of central nervous system: a study of 21 patients seen in a university hospital in south India, J Assoc Physicians India. 48(7):677–681.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murthy, J.M., C. Sundaram, V.S. Prasad, A.K. Purohit, S. Rammurti and V. Laxmi (2001). Sinocranial aspergillosis: a form of central nervous system aspergillosis in south India, Mycoses. 44(5): 141–145.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Musher, B., D. Fredricks, W. Leisenring, S.A. Balajee, C. Smith and K.A. Marr (2004). Aspergillus galactomannan enzyme immunoassay and quantitative PCR for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis with bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, J Clin Microbiol. 42(12):5517–5522.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mylonakis, E., M. Paliou, P.E. Sax, P.R. Skolnik, M.J. Baron and J.D. Rich (2000). Central nervous system aspergillosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Report of 6 cases and review, Medicine (Baltimore). 79(4):269–280.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nadkarni, T. and A. Goel (2005). Aspergilloma of the brain: an overview, J Postgrad Med 51Suppll:S37–S41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nenoff, P., U. Gütz, K. Tintelnot, A. Bosse-Henck, M. Mierzwa, J. Hofmann, L.C. Horn and U. F. Haustein (1996). Disseminated mycosis due to Scedosporium prolificans in an AIDS patient with Burkitt lymphoma, Mycoses. 39(11-12):461–465.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nithyanandam, S., M.S. Jacob, R.R. Battu, R.K. Thomas, M.A. Correa and O. D’Souza (2003). Rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis. A retrospective analysis of clinical features and treatment outcomes, Indian J Ophthalmol. 51(3):231–236.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nobrega, J.P., S. Rosemberg, A.M. Adami, E.M. Heins-Vaccari, C. da Silva Lacaz and T. de Brito (2003). Fonsecaea pedrosoi cerebral phaeohyphomycosis (“chromoblastomycosis”): first human culture-proven case reported in Brazil, Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 45(4):217–220.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noritomi, D.T., G.L. Bub, I. Beer, A.S.F. da Silva, R. de Cleva and J.J. Gama-Rodrigues (2005). Multiple brain abscesses due to Penicillium spp infection, Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 47(3): 167–170.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ochi, J.W., J.P. Harris, J.I. Feldman and G.A. Press (1988). Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: results of aggressive surgical debridement and amphotericin B, Laryngoscope. 98(12):1339–1342.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okamoto, K., A. Kuroiwa, Y. Yokoyama, F. Kamoda, H. Kinumaki and N. Shitara (1996). A case of cerebral aspergillosis associated with induction chemotherapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia, No To Shinkei. 48(11):1047–1051.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pagano, L., M. Caira, P. Falcucci and L. Fianchi(2005). Fungal CNS infections in patients with hematologic malignancy, Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 3(5):775–785.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pagano, L., P. Ricci, M. Montillo, A. Cenacchi, A. Nosari, A. Tonso, L. Cudillo, A. Chierichini, C. Savignano, M. Buelli, L. Melillo, E.O. La Barbera, S. Sica, S. Hohaus, A. Bonini, G. Bucaneve and A. Del Favero (1996). Localization of aspergillosis to the central nervous system among patients with acute leukemia: report of 14 cases. Gruppo Italiano Malattie Ematologiche dell’Adulto Infection Program, Clin Infect Dis. 23(3):628–630.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paniago, A.M., P.A. de Oliveira, E.S. Aguiar, J.I. Aguiar, R.V. da Cunha, L.M. Lerne, P.R. Salgado, J.A. Domingos, R.L. Ferraz, M.R. Chang, M.N. Böia and B. Wanke (2007). Neuroparacoccidioidomycosis: analysis of 13 cases observed in an endemic area in Brazil, Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 101(4):414–420..

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Panichpisal, K., K. Nugent and J.C. Sarria (2006). Central nervous system pseudalle-scheriasis after near-drowning, Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 108(4):348–352..

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Panicker, J., T. Walsh and N. Kamani (2006). Recurrent central nervous system blastomycosis in an immunocompetent child treated successfully with sequential liposomal amphotericin B and voriconazole, Pediatr Infect Dis J. 25(4):377–379..

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paphitou, N.I. and B.J. Barnett (2002). Solitary parietal lobe histoplasmoma mimicking a brain tumor, Scand J Infect Dis. 34(3):229–232.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Penn, C.C., E. Goldstein and W.R. Bartholomew (1992). Sporothrix schenckii meningitis in a patient with AIDS, Clin Infect Dis. 15(4):741–743.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, K.L., M. Wang, R.F. Canalis and E. Abemayor (1997). Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: evolution of the disease and treatment options, Laryngoscope. 107(7):855–862.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pillsbury, H.C. and N.D. Fischer (1977). Rhinocerebral mucormycosis, Arch Otolaryngol 103(10):600–604.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Podnos, Y.D., P. Anastasio, L.D.L. Maza and R.B. Kim (1999). Cerebral phaeohyphomycosis caused by Ramichloridium obovoideum (Ramichlori-dium mackenziei): case report, Neurosurgery. 45(2):372–375.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ponticelli, C. and M.R. Campise (2005). Neurological complications in kidney transplant recipients, JNephrol. 18(5):521–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Popovich, M.J., R.H. Arthur and E. Helmer. (1990). CT of intracranial cryptococcosis, AJR Am J Roentgenol. 154(3):603–606.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pruitt, A.A. (2003). Nervous system infections in patients with cancer. Neurol Clin. 21(1):193–219.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pruitt, A.A. (2004). Central nervous system infections in cancer patients, Semin Neurol. 24(4):435–452.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quattrocolo, G., P. Pignatta, U. Dimanico, L. Tarenzi and P. Baggiore (1990). Rhinocerebral mucormycosis and internal carotid artery thrombosis in a previously healthy patient, Acta Neurol Belg. 90(1):20–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rabin, E.R., G.D. Lundberg and E.T. Mitchell (1961). Mucormycosis in severely burned patients. Report of two cases with extensive destruction of the face and nasal cavity, N Engl J Med. 264:1286–1289.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raj, P., E.J. Vella and R.C. Bickerton (1998). Successful treatment of rhino-cerebral mucormycosis by a combination of aggressive surgical debridement and the use of systemic liposomal amphotericin B and local therapy with nebulized amphotericin-a case report, J Laryngol Otol. 112(4):367–370.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ray, M.S., V. Kumar, D. Jain and N.K. Dubey (2002). Rhino-orbital mucor-mycosis in acute renal failure, Indian Pediatr. 39(4):381–385.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Revankar, S.G. (2006). Phaeohyphomycosis, Infect Dis Clin North Am. 20(3):609–620.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Revankar, S.G. (2007). Dematiaceous fungi, Mycoses. 50(2):91–101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R.H. (1987). Histopathology of the central nervous system in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Hum Pathol. 18(6):636–643.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Revankar, S.G., D.A. Sutton and M.G. Rinaldi (2004). Primary central nervous system phaeohyphomycosis: a review of 101 cases, Clin Infect Dis. 38(2):206–216.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riefler, J., J. Batbouta and D.F. Uphoff (1991). Case reports Rhizopus brain abscess: report of a case and review of the literature, Mil Med. 156(9):497–499.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rivera, I.V., R.G. Curless, F.J. Indacochea and G.B. Scott(1992). Chronic progressive CNS histoplasmosis presenting in childhood: response to fluconazole therapy, Pediatr Neurol. 8(2): 151–153.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roche, M., R.M. Redmond, S. O’Neill and E. Smyth (2005). A case of multiple cerebral abscesses due to infection with Cladophialophora bantiana, J Infect. 2005 51(5):e285–e288..

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, J.J. and J.D. Katz. (2002). Cryptococcal meningitis and sarcoidosis, Scand J Infect Dis. 34(12):937–939.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rüchel, R. and E. Wilichowski (1995). Cerebral Pseudallescheria mycosis after neardrowning, Mycoses. 38(11-12):473–475.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rumboldt, Z. and M. Castillo (2002). Indolent intracranial mucormycosis: case report, AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 23(6):932–934.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saag, M.S., R.J. Graybill, R.A. Larsen, P.G. Pappas, J.R. Perfect, W.G. Powderly, J.D. Sobel and W.E. Dismukes. (2000). Practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease. Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin Infect Dis. 30(4):710–718.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Safar, A., J. Marsan, O. Marglani, K. Al-Sebeih, J. Al-Harbi and M. Valvoda (2005). Early identification of rhinocerebral mucormycosis, J Otolaryngol. 34(3): 166–171.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saigal, G., M.J.D. Post, S. Lolayekar and A Murtaza (2005). Unusual presentation of central nervous system cryptococcal infection in an immunocompetent patient, AJNR Am J Neuromdiol. 26(10):2522–2526.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salama, A.D., T. Rogers, G.M. Lord, R.I. Lechler and P.D. Mason (1997). Multiple Cladosporium brain abscesses in a renal transplant patient: aggressive management improves outcome, Transplantation. 63(1):160–162.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saulsbury, F.T. (2001). Successful treatment of Aspergillus brain abscess with itraconazole and interferon-gamma in a patient with chronic granulomatous disease, Clin Infect Dis. 32(10):E137–E139.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schulman, J.A., C. Leveque, M. Coats, L. Lawrence and J.C. Barber (1988). Fatal disseminated cryptococcosis following intraocular involvement, Br J Ophthalmol. 72(3):171–175.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schütz, P., J.H. Behbehani, Z.U. Khan, S. Ahmad, M.A. Kazem, R. Dhar, W. Eskaf, H.H. Hamed and L.L. Cunningham Jr. (2006). Fatal rhino-orbito-cerebral zygomycosis caused by Apophysomyces elegans in a healthy patient, J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 64(12):1795–1802.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S., M. Ruhnke, P. Ribaud, L. Corey, T. Driscoll, O.A. Comely, U. Schuler, I. Lutsar, P. Troke and E. Thiel (2005). Improved outcome in central nervous system aspergillosis, using voriconazole treatment, Blood. 106(8):2641–2645.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S., M. Ruhnke, P. Ribaud, E. Reed, P. Troke and E. Thiel (2007). Poor efficacy of amphotericin B-based therapy in CNS aspergillosis, Mycoses. 50(3): 196–200.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. and E. Thiel (2003). CNS-aspergillosis: are there new treatment options?, Mycoses. 46 Suppl 2:8–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Selby, R., C.B. Ramirez, R. Singh, I. Kleopoulos, S. Kusne, T.E. Starzl and J. Fung (1997). Brain abscess in solid organ transplant recipients receiving cyclosporine-based immunosuppression, Arch Surg. 132(3):304–310.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shankar, S.K., A. Mahadevan, C. Sundaram, C. Sarkar, G. Chacko, D.N. Lanjewar, V. Santosh, T.C. Yasha and W. Radhakrishnan (2007). Pathobiology of fungal infections of the central nervous system with special reference to the Indian scenario, Neurol India. 55(3):198–215.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, R.R., S.J. Pawar, A. Delmendo, S.D. Lad and S.D. Athale (2001). Fatal rhinoorbito-cerebral mucormycosis in an apparently normal host: case report and literature review, J Clin Neurosci. 8(6):583–586.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheikh, S.S. and S.S. Amr (2007). Mycotic cysts: report of 21 cases including eight pheomycotic cysts from Saudi Arabia, Int J Dermatol. 46(4):388–392..

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siddiqui, A.A., S.H. Bashir, A.A. Shah, Z. Sajjad, N. Ahmed, R. Jooma and S.A. Enam (2006). Diagnostic MR imaging features of craniocerebral of sino-nasal origin in immunocompetent patients, Acta Neurochir (Wien). 148(2): 155–66; discussion 166.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siddiqui, A.A., A.A. Shah and S.H. Bashir (2004). Craniocerebral aspergillosis of sinonasal origin in immunocompetent patients: clinical spectrum and outcome ia 25 cases Neurosurgery. 55(3):602–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sides, E.H., J.D. Benson and A.A. Padhye (1991). Phaeohyphomycotic brain abscess due to Ochroconis gallopavum in a patient with malignant lymphoma of a large cell type, J Med Vet Mycol. 29(5):317–322.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silva-Vergara, M.L., F.R.Z. Maneira, R.M.D. Oliveira, C.T.B. Santos, R.M. Etchebehere and S.J. Adad (2005). Multifocal sporotrichosis with meningeal involvement in a patient with AIDS, Med Mycol. 43(2): 187–190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silveira, E.R., M.A. Resende, V.S. Mariano, W.A. Coura, L.D. Alkmim, L.B. Vianna, C.E. Starling, G.G. Cruz, L.A. Benicio, A.M. Paula, J.A. Gomes, G.D. Santos, M.A.M. Macedo, R.E. Salum, M. Gontijo, A.L. Rabello and R.B. Caligiorne (2003). Brain abscess caused by Cladophialophora (Xylohypha) bantiana in a renal transplant patient, Transpl Infect Dis. 5(2): 104–107

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, J.H., P.S. Zeitler, L.Z. Fenton, M.J. Abzug, R.V. Fiallo-Scharer and G.J. Klingensmith (2005). Rhinocerebral mucormycosis complicated by internal carotid artery thrombosis in a pediatric patient with type 1 diabetes mellitus: a case report and review of the literature, Pediatr Diabetes. 6(4):234–238.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N. and S. Husain(2000). Infections of the central nervous system in transplant recipients, Transpl Infect Dis. 2(3): 101–111.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J.L. and D.A. Stevens (1986). Survival in cerebro-rhino-orbital zygomycosis and cavernous sinus thrombosis with combined therapy, South Med J. 79(4):501–504.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sood, S., R. Sharma, S. Gupta, D. Pathak and S. Rishi (2007). Neuroaspergillosis in an immunocompetent patient, Indian J Med Microbiol. 25(1):67–69.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sörensen, J., M. Becker, L. Porto, E. Lambrecht, T. Schuster, F. Beske, V. Rickerts, T. Klingebiel and T. Lehrnbecher (2006). Rhinocerebral zygomycosis in a young girl undergoing allogenic stem cell transplantation for severe aplastic anaemia, Mycoses. 49 Suppl 1:31–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Speller, D.C., F. Fakunle, S.A. Cairns and M. Stephens (1977). Cryptococcal meningitis complicating systemic lupus erythematosus: two patients treated with flucytosine and amphoterici, B. J Clin Pathol. 30(3):254–261.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sridhara, S.R., G. Paragache, N.K. Panda and A. Chakrabarti (2005). Mucormycosis in immunocompetent individuals: an increasing trend, J Otolaryngol. 34(6):402–406.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stankovic, K., P. Seve, A. Hot, N. Magy, I. Durieu and C. Broussolle (2006). Aspergillosis in systemic diseases treated with steroids and/or immunosuppressive drugs: report of 9 cases and review of the literature, Rev Med Interne. 27(11):813–827.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sundaram, C., A. Mahadevan, V. Laxmi, T.C. Yasha, V. Santosh, M.J. Murthy, A.K. Purohit, S. Mohandas and S. K. Shankar (2005). Cerebral zygomycosis, Mycoses. 48(6):396–407.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sundaram, C., P. Umabala, V. Laxmi, A.K. Purohit, V.S. Prasad, M. Panigrahi, B.P. Sahu, M.V. Sarathi, S. Kaul, R. Borghain, A. K. Meena, S. S. Jayalakshmi, A. Suvarna, S. Mohandas and J.M. Murthy (2006). Pathology of fungal infections of the central nervous system: 17 years’ experience from Southern India, Histopathology. 49(4):396–405.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Supparatpinyo, K, Khamwan C, Baosoung V, Nelson KE, Sirisanthana T. (1994). Disseminated Penicillium marneffei infection in southeast Asia, Lancet. 344(8915):110–113.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Surash, S., A. Tyagi, G.S. de Hoog, J.S. Zeng, R.C. Barton and R.P. Hobson (2005). Cerebral phaeohyphomycosis caused by Fonsecaea monophora, Med Mycol. 43(5):465–472.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton, D.A., M. Slifkin, R. Yakulis and M.G. Rinaldi (1998). U.S. case report of cerebral phaeohyphomycosis caused by Ramichloridium obovoideum (R. mackenziei): criteria for identification, therapy, and review of other known dematiaceous neurotropic taxa, J Clin Microbiol. 36(3):708–715.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szeder, V., S. Ortega-Gutierrez, M. Frank and S.S. Jaradeh (2007). CNS blastomycosis in a young man working in fields after Hurricane Katrina, Neurology. 68(20): 1746–1747.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takei, H., J.C. Goodman and S.Z. Powell(2007). Cerebral phaeohyphomycosis caused by ladophialophora bantiana and Fonsecaea monophora: report of three cases, Clin Neuropathol. 26(1):21–27.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Talmi, Y.P., A. Goldschmied-Reouven, M. Bakon, I. Barshack, M. Wolf, Z. Horowitz, M. Berkowicz, N. Keller and J. Kronenberg (2002). Rhino-orbital and rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis, Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 127(1):22–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teixeira, A.B., P. Trabasso, M.L. Moretti-Branchini, F.H. Aoki, A.C. Vigorito, M. Miyaji, Y. Mikami, M. Takada and A.Z. Schreiber (2003). Phaeohyphomycosis caused by Chaetomium globosum in an allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipient, Mycopathologia. 156(4):309–312.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tempkin, A.D., R.E. Sobonya, J.F. Seeger and E.S. Oh (2006). Cerebral aspergillosis: radiologic and pathologic findings, Radiographics. 26(4): 1239–1242.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, C., D. Mileusnic, R.B. Carey, M. Kampert and D. Anderson (1999). Fatal Chaetomium cerebritis in a bone marrow transplant patient, Hum Pathol. 30(7):874–879.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tilney, N.L., T.R. Kohler and T.B. Strom (1982). Cerebromeningitis in immunosup-pressed recipients of renal allografts, Ann Surg. 195(1):104–109.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tintelnot, K., de Hoog, G.S., Thomas, E., Steudel, W.I., Huebner, K. and Seeliger, H.P. (1991). Cerebral phaeohyphomycosis caused by an Exophiala species, Mycoses. 34(5-6):239–244.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torre-Cisneros, J., O.L. Lopez, S. Kusne, A.J. Martinez, T.E. Starzl, R.L. Simmons and M. Martin (1993). CNS aspergillosis in organ transplant-ation: a clinicopathological study, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 56(2):188–193.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trinh, J.V., W.J. Steinbach, W.A. Schell, J. Kurtzberg, S.S. Giles and J.R. Perfect (2003). Cerebral phaeohyphomycosis in an immunodeficient child treated medically with combination antifungal therapy, Med Mycol. 41(4):339–345.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai, H.C., S.S. Lee, S.R. Wann, Y.S. Chen, J.S. Wang and Y.C. Liu (2006). Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis with cerebral abscess in a patient with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, J Chin Med Assoc. 69(6):278–281.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai, T.C., C.C. Hou, M.S. Chou, W.H. Chen and J.S. Liu (1999). Rhinosino-orbital mucormycosis causing cavernous sinus thrombosis and internal carotid artery occlusion: radiological findings in a patient with treatment failure, Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 15(9):556–561.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tunuguntla, A., M.M. Saad, J. Abdalla and J.W. Myers (2005). Multiple brain abscesses caused by Cladophialophora bantianum: a challenging case, Tenn Med. 98(5):227–8, 235.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ur Rahman, N., E.S. Mahgoub and A.H. Chagla (1988). Fatal brain abscesses caused by Ramichloridium obovoideum: report of three cases, Acta Neurochir (Wien). 93(3-4):92–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vidal, J.E., R.F. Dauar, M.S. Melhem, W. Szeszs, S.R. Pukinskas, J.F. Coelho, D.L. Lins, S.F. Costa, A.C. Penalva de Oliveira and S. Lacaz Cda (2005). Cerebral aspergillosis due to Aspergillus fiimigatus in AIDS patient: first culture-proven case reported in Brazil, Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 47(3): 161–165.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vilela, R., G.F. Souza, G. Fernandes Cota and L. Mendoza (2007). Cutaneous and meningeal sporotrichosis in a HIV patient, Rev Iberoam Micol. 24(2): 161–163.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Voice, R.A., S.F. Bradley, J.A. Sangeorzan and C.A. Kauffman (1994). Chronic candidal meningitis: an uncommon manifestation of candidiasis, Clin Infect Dis. 19(1):60–66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vukmir, R.B., S. Kusne, P. Linden, W. Pasculle, A.W. Fothergill, J. Sheaffer, J. Nieto, R. Segal, H. Merhav and A.J. Martinez (1994). Successful therapy for cerebral phaeohyphomycosis due to Dactylaria gallopava in a liver transplant recipient, Clin Infect Dis. 19(4):714–719.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vullo, V., C.M. Mastroianni, U. Ferone, V. Trinchieri, F. Folgori, M. Lichtner and C. D’Agostino (1997). Central nervous system involvement as a relapse of disseminated histoplasmosis in an Italian AIDS patient, J Infect. 35(1):83–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walz, R., M. Bianchin, M.L. Chaves, M.R. Cerski, L.C. Severo and A.T. Londero (1997). Cerebral phaeohyphomycosis caused by Cladophialophora bantiana in a Brazilian drug abuser, J Med Vet Mycol. 35(6):427–431.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wandroo, F., P. Stableforth and Y. Hasan (2006). Aspergillus brain abscess in a patient with acute myeloid leukaemia successfully treated with voriconazole, Clin Lab Haematol. 28(2):130–133.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, T.K., W. Chiu, S. Chim, T.M. Chan, S.S. Wong and P.L. Ho (2003). Disseminated ochroconis gallopavum infection in a renal transplant recipient: the first reported case and a review of the literature, Clin Nephrol. 60(6):415–423.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Warwar, R. and J. Bullock (1998). Rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis: a review. Orbit. 17(4):237–245.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilcox, R.A., D. Thyagarajan and P. Kempster (2007). Two cases of Cryptococcus meningitis presenting as leukoencephalopathy prior to amphotericin therapy, Eur J Neurol. 14(3):350–352.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, P. L. (2007). Coccidioidal meningitis, Ann N YAcad Sci. 1111:377–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, P.L., R. Johnson, D. Pappagianis, H, Einstein, U. Slager, F.T. Koster, J.J. Eron, J. Morrison, J. Aguet and M.E. River (1992). Vasculitic and encephalitic complications associated with Coccidioides immitis infection of the central nervous system in humans: report of 10 cases and review, Clin Infect Dis. 14(3):673–682.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, T.S., W.A. Fleming, F.L. Robinson and B. Nicholl (1970). Cryptococcal meningitis associated with steroid therapy, J Clin Pathol. 23(8):657–663.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, D., A. Schneider and J.R. Berger (1997). Central nervous system opportunistic infections, Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 7(3):513–525.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, S.J., T. Valyi-Nagy, H.H. Engelhard, M.A. Do and W.M. Janda (2005). Secondary intracerebral blastomycosis with giant yeast forms, Mycopathologia. 160(3):253–257..

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, V.C., R. Wang, T.S. Lai and K.D. Wu (2006). Deferoxamine-related fatal nasal-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis, Kidney Int. 70(11):1888.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamada, K., D.A. Shrier, A. Rubio, Y. Shan, G.H. Zoarski, T. Yoshiura, S. Iwanaga, T. Nishimura and Y. Numaguchi (2002). Imaging findings in intracranial aspergillosis, AcadRadiol. 9(2):163–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yohai, R.A., J.D. Bullock, A.A. Aziz and R. J. Markert (1994). Survival factors in rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis, Surv Ophthalmol. 39(1):3–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshimori, R.N., R.A. Moore, H.H. tabashi and D.G. Fujikawa (1982). Phaeohyphomycosis of brain: granulomatous encephalitis caused by Drechslera spicifera, Am J Clin Pathol. 77(3):363–370.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann, B., M. Spiegel and E.V. Lally (1992). Cryptococcal meningitis in systemic lupus erythematosus, Semin Arthritis Rheum. 22(1): 18–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Salwa Shabbir Sheikh .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Scientific Publishers (India)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sheikh, S.S., Amr, S.S. (2010). Fungal Infections of the Central Nervous System. In: Rai, M., Kövics, G. (eds) Progress in Mycology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3713-8_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics