Abstract
The application of drugs via the skin is appealing because it is non-invasive and avoids systemic side effects and numerous problems associated with conventional routes of drug application, i.e. intravenous or oral drug delivery (e.g. hepatic first pass, food enzymes, pH changes, etc.). In addition to this the rate of drug input can be controlled and drugs can be self-administered. The target sites of the body for this mode of drug application can be local tissues, regional tissues and systemic circulation. The drug penetration through the skin includes the route across the stratum corneum (intercellular and transcellular routes) or the route via the hair shafts or sweat pores. The skin’s strong barrier properties make it difficult for drugs to penetrate this barrier and achieve therapeutic doses at the site of disease. There are approximately 20 transdermal products on the market, and this number has not shifted much in the past decade. Many of the drugs need help to penetrate the skin. There are a large number of methods that enhance dermal as well as transdermal drug delivery. These methods are broadly chemical and physical, have different modes of action and can be used alone or synergistically. This chapter is a brief overview of targets in skin delivery of drugs and methods used to enhance drug penetration.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abdulmajed K, Heard CM (2008) Topical delivery of retinyl ascorbate. 3. Influence of follicle sealing and skin stretching. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 21(1):46–49
Abraham MH, Chanda HS, Mitchell RC (1995) The factors that influence skin penetration of solutes. J Pharm Pharmacol 47:8–16
Afouna MI, Fincher TK, Zaghloul AAA, Reddy IK (2003) Effect of Azone upon the in vivo antiviral efficacy of cidofovir or acyclovir topical formulations in treatment/prevention of cutaneous HSV-1 infections and its correlation with skin target site free drug concentration in hairless mice. Int J Pharm 253:159–168
Agarwal R, Katare OP, Vyas SP (2000) The pilosebaceous unit: a pivotal route for topical drug delivery. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 22(2):129–133
Ahad A, Aqil M, Kohli K, Chaudhary H, Sultana Y, Mujeeb M et al (2009) Chemical penetration enhancers: a patent review. Expert Opin Ther Pat 19(7):969–988
Akimoto T, Nagase Y (2003) Novel transdermal drug penetration enhancer: synthesis and enhancing effect of alkyldisiloxane compounds containing glucopyranosyl group. J Control Release 88(2):243–252
Alexander A, Dwivedi S, Ajazuddin, Giri TK, Saraf S, Saraf S, Tripathi DK (2012) Approaches for breaking the barriers of drug permeation through transdermal drug delivery. J Control Release 164(1):26–40
Andrews S, Lee JW, Choi S-O, Prausnitz MR (2011) Transdermal insulin delivery using microdermabrasion. Pharm Res 28(9):2110–2118
Andrews SN, Jeong E, Prausnitz MR (2012) Transdermal delivery of molecules is limited by full epidermis, not just stratum corneum. Pharm Res 30(4):1099–109
Babu RJ, Pandit JK (2005) Effect of penetration enhancers on the transdermal delivery of bupranolol through rat skin. Drug Deliv 12(3):165–169
Banga AK (1998) Electrically assisted transdermal and topical drug delivery. Taylor & Francis Group, London
Banga AK, Bose S, Ghosh TK (1999) Iontophoresis and electroporation: comparisons and contrasts. Int J Pharm 179(1):1–19
Bangham AD, Standish MM, Watkins JC (1965) Diffusion of univalent ions across the lamellae of swollen phospholipids. J Mol Biol 13:238–252
Barry BW (1983) Dermatological formulations: percutaneous absorption. Marcel Dekker, New York
Barry BW (1991) Lipid–protein-partititioning theory of skin penetration enhancement. J Control Release 15:237–248
Barry BW (2001) Novel mechanisms and devices to enable successful transdermal drug delivery. Eur J Pharm Sci 14(2):101–114
Barry BW (2006) Penetration enhancer classification. In: Smith EW, Maibach HI (eds) Percutaneous penetration enhancers. CRC Press, Taylor& Francis Group, LLC, Boca Raton, pp 3–15
Benson HAE (2005) Transdermal drug delivery: penetration enhancement techniques. Curr Drug Deliv 2(1):23–33
Benson HAE, Watkinson AC (2012) Transdermal and topical drug delivery: principles and practice. Wiley, Hoboken
Blagus T, Markelc B, Cemazar M, Kosjek T, Preat V, Miklavcic D, Sersa G (2013) In vivo real time monitoring system of electroporation mediated control of transdermal and topical drug delivery. J Control Release 172(3):862–71, pii: S0168-3659(13)00827-4
Bouwstra JA, Honeywell-Nguyen PL, Gooris GS, Ponec M (2003) Structure of the skin barrier and its modulation by vesicular formulations. Prog Lipid Res 42:1–36
Brain KR, Green DM, Dykes PJ, Marks R, Bola TS (2006) The role of menthol in skin penetration from topical formulations of ibuprofen 5% in vivo. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 19:17–21
Bremseth DL, Pass F (2001) Delivery of insulin by jet injection: recent observations. Diabetes Technol Ther 3(2):225–232
Brychtova K, Jampilek J, Opatrilova R, Raich I, Farsa O, Csollei J (2010) Synthesis, physico-chemical properties and penetration activity of alkyl-6-(2,5-dioxopyrrolidin-1-yl)-2-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)hexanoates as potential transdermal penetration enhancers. Bioorg Med Chem 18(1):73–79
Bucks D, Maibach HI (1999) Occlusion does not uniformly enhance penetration in vivo. In: Bronaugh RL, Maibach HI (eds) Percutaneous absorption: mechanism, methodology, drug delivery, 2nd edn. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 77–93
Bugaj A, Juzeniene A, Juzenas P, Iani V, Ma LW, Moan J (2006) The effect of skin permeation enhancers on the formation of porphyrins in mouse skin during topical application of the methyl ester of 5-aminolevulinic acid. J Photochem Photobiol B 83(2):94–97
Buyuktimkin N, Buyuktimkin S, Rytting JH (1997) Chemical means of transdermal drug permeation enhancement. In: Ghosh TK, Pfister WR, Yum S (eds) Transdermal and topical drug delivery systems, Informa health care, London, pp 357–447
Cancel LM, Tarbell JM, Ben-Jebria A (2004) Fluorescein permeability and electrical resistance of human skin during low frequency ultrasound application. J Pharm Pharmacol 56(9):1109–1118
Cao D, Tazawa Y, Ishii H, Todo H, Sugibayashi K (2011) Pretreatment effects of moxibustion on the skin permeation and skin and muscle concentrations of salicylate in rats. Int J Pharm 407(1–2):105–110
Cevc G, Mazgareanu S, Rother M (2008) Preclinical characterisation of NSAIDs in ultradeformable carriers or conventional topical gels. Int J Pharm 360:29–39
Chen H, Zhu H, Zheng J, Mou D, Wan J, Zhang J et al (2009) Iontophoresis-driven penetration of nanovesicles through microneedle-induced skin microchannels for enhancing transdermal delivery of insulin. J Control Release 139(1):63–72
Cheong H-A, Choi H-K (2003) Effect of ethanolamine salts and enhancers on the percutaneous absorption of piroxicam from a pressure sensitive adhesive matrix. Eur J Pharm Sci 18(2):149–153
Ciotti SN, Weiner N (2002) Follicular liposomal delivery systems. J Liposome Res 12(1–2):143–148
Costello CT, Jeske AH (1995) Iontophoresis: applications in transdermal medication delivery. Phys Ther 75(6):554–563
Denet A-R, Préat V (2003) Transdermal delivery of timolol by electroporation through human skin. J Control Release 88(2):253–262
Denet A-R, Vanbever R, Préat V (2004) Skin electroporation for transdermal and topical delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 56(5):659–674
Dias MMR, Raghavan SL, Pellett MA, Hadgraft J (2003) The effect of beta-cyclodextrins on the permeation of diclofenac from supersaturated solutions. Int J Pharm 263(1–2):173–181
Downing DT, Stewart ME (2000) Epidermal composition. In: Loden M, Maibach HI (eds) Dry skin and moisturizers, chemistry and function. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 13–26
Dragicevic-Curic N, Scheglmann D, Albrecht V, Fahr A (2008) Temoporfin-loaded invasomes: development, characterization and in vitro skin penetration studies. J Control Release 127(1):59–69
Dragicevic-Curic N, Scheglmann D, Albrecht V, Fahr (2009) Development of liposomes containing ethanol for skin delivery of temoporfin: characterization and in vitro penetration studies. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 74(1):114–122
Ehrenström-Reiz GM, Reiz SL (1982) EMLA–a eutectic mixture of local anaesthetics for topical anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 26(6):596–598
El Maghraby GM, Williams AC (2009) Vesicular systems for delivering conventional small organic molecules and larger macromolecules to and through human skin. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 6(2):149–163
El-Kattan AF, Asbill CS, Michniak BB (2000) The effect of terpene enhancer lipophilicity on the percutaneous permeation of hydrocortisone formulated in HPMC gel systems. Int J Pharm 198:179–189
El-Kattan AF, Asbill CS, Kim N, Michniak BB (2001) The effects of terpene enhancers on the percutaneous permeation of drugs with different lipophilicities. Int J Pharm 215:229–240
Engwerda EE, Abbink EJ, Tack CJ, de Galan BE (2011) Improved pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile of rapid-acting insulin using needle-free jet injection technology. Diabetes Care 34(8):1804–1808
Engwerda EE, Tack CJ, de Galan BE (2013) Needle-free jet injection of rapid-acting insulin improves early postprandial glucose control in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 36:3436–3441
Feingold KR, Man MQ, Menon GK, Cho SS, Brown BE, Elias PM (1990) Cholesterol synthesis is required for cutaneous barrier function in mice. J Clin Invest 86(5):1738–1745
Flynn GL, Weiner ND (1991) Topical and transdermal delivery-provinces of realism. In: Teubner GR, Teubner A (eds) Dermal and transdermal delivery. Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft GmbH, Stuttgart, pp 33–64
Forslind B (1994) A domain mosaic model of the skin barrier. Acta Derm Venereol 74(1):1–6
Frum Y, Eccleston GM, Meidan VM (2008) Factors influencing hydrocortisone permeation into human hair follicles: use of the skin sandwich system. Int J Pharm 358(1–2):144–150
Furuishi T, Fukami T, Suzuki T, Takayama K, Tomono K (2010) Synergistic effect of isopropyl myristate and glyceryl monocaprylate on the skin permeation of pentazocine. Biol Pharm Bull 33(2):294–300
Ghyczy M (2002) Chemical composition of liposomes and its influence on the humidity of normal skin, chemical aspects of the skin lipid approach. In: Braun-Falco O, Korting HC, Maibach HI (eds) Liposome dermatics. Springer, Berlin, pp 308–314
Gill HS, Prausnitz MR (2007) Coated microneedles for transdermal delivery. J Control Release 117(2):227–237
Gómez C, Costela A, García-Moreno I, Llanes F, Teijón JM, Blanco D (2008) Laser treatments on skin enhancing and controlling transdermal delivery of 5-fluorouracil. Lasers Surg Med 40(1):6–12
Goodman M, Barry BW (1988) Action of penetration enhancers on human skin as assessed by the permeation of model drugs 5-fluorouracil and estradiol. I. Infinite dose technique. J Invest Dermatol 91(4):323–327
Guy RH, Hadgraft J, Bucks DA (1987) Transdermal drug delivery and cutaneous metabolism. Xenobiotica 17(3):325–343
Hikima T, Ohsumi S, Shirouzu K, Tojo K (2009) Mechanisms of synergistic skin penetration by sonophoresis and iontophoresis. Biol Pharm Bull 32(5):905–909
Hoffman RM (1998) Topical liposome targeting of dyes, melanins, genes, and proteins selectively to hair follicles. J Drug Target 5(2):67–74
Honeywell-Nguyen PL, Gooris GS, Bouwstra JA (2004) Quantitative assessment of the transport of elastic and rigid vesicle components and a model drug from these vesicle formulations into human skin in vivo. J Invest Dermatol 123:902–910
Ibrahim SA, Li SK (2010) Efficiency of fatty acids as chemical penetration enhancers: mechanisms and structure enhancement relationship. Pharm Res 27(1):115–125
Illel B (1997) Formulation for transfollicular drug administration: some recent advances. Crit Rev Ther Drug Carrier Syst 14(3):207–219
Illel B, Schaefer H, Wepierre J, Doucet O (1991) Follicles play an important role in percutaneous absorption. J Pharm Sci 80(5):424–427
Inoue K, Sugibayashi K (2012) In vivo enhancement of transdermal absorption of ketotifen by supersaturation generated by amorphous form of the drug. Eur J Pharm Sci 47(1):228–234
Jampilek J, Brychtova K (2012) Azone analogues: classification, design, and transdermal penetration principles. Med Res Rev 32(5):907–947
Juluri A, Peddikotla P, Repka MA, Murthy SN (2013) Transdermal iontophoretic delivery of propofol: a general anaesthetic in the form of its phosphate salt. J Pharm Sci 102(2):500–507
Kalaria DR, Patel P, Merino V, Patravale VB, Kalia YN (2013) Controlled iontophoretic transport of Huperzine A across skin in vitro and in vivo: effect of delivery conditions and comparison of pharmacokinetic models. Mol Pharm 10:4322–4329
Kalluri H, Banga AK (2011) Transdermal delivery of proteins. AAPS PharmSciTech 12(1):431–441
Karakatsani M, Dedhiya M, Plakogiannis FM (2010) The effect of permeation enhancers on the viscosity and the release profile of transdermal hydroxypropyl methylcellulose gel formulations containing diltiazem HCl. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 36(10):1195–1206
Karande P, Mitragotri S (2009) Enhancement of transdermal drug delivery via synergistic action of chemicals. Biochim Biophys Acta 1788(11):2362–2373
Kasting GB, Smith RL, Anderson BD (1992) Prodrugs for dermal delivery solubility, molecular size, and functional group effects. In: Sloan KB (ed) Prodrugs topical and ocular drug delivery. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 117–161
Kim YC, Prausnitz MR (2011) Enabling skin vaccination using new delivery technologies. Drug Deliv Transl Res 1(1):7–12
Kost J, Pliquett U, Mitragotri S, Yamamoto A, Langer R, Weaver J (1996) Synergistic effect of electric field and ultrasound on transdermal transport. Pharm Res 13(4):633–638
Krishnaiah YS, Satyanarayana V, Karthikeyan RS (2002) Penetration enhancing effect of menthol on the percutaneous flux of nicardipine hydrochloride through excised rat epidermis from hydroxypropyl cellulose gels. Pharm Dev Technol 7:305–315
Krishnaiah YS, Satyanarayana V, Bhaskar P (2003) Enhanced percutaneous permeability of nicardipine hydrochloride by carvone across the rat abdominal skin. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 29:191–202
Krishnan G, Edwards J, Chen Y, Benson HAE (2010) Enhanced skin permeation of naltrexone by pulsed electromagnetic fields in human skin in vitro. J Pharm Sci 99(6):2724–2731
Lauer AC (1999) Percutaneous drug delivery to the hair follicle. In: Bronaugh RL, Maibach HI (eds) Percutaneous absorption drugs-cosmetics-mechanisms-methodology, 3rd edn. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, pp 427–449
Le L, Kost J, Mitragotri S (2000) Combined effect of low-frequency ultrasound and iontophoresis: applications for transdermal heparin delivery. Pharm Res 17(9):1151–1154
Lee S, Kollias N, McAuliffe DJ, Flotte TJ, Doukas AG (1999) Topical drug delivery in humans with a single photomechanical wave. Pharm Res 16(11):1717–1721
Leichtnam ML, Rolland H, Wüthrich P, Guy RH (2006) Enhancement of transdermal testosterone delivery by supersaturation. J Pharm Sci 95(11):2373–2379
Leichtnam ML, Rolland H, Wüthrich P, Guy RH (2007) Impact of antinucleants on transdermal delivery of testosterone from a spray. J Pharm Sci 96(1):84–92
Levin G, Gershonowitz A, Sacks H, Stern M, Sherman A, Rudaev S et al (2005) Transdermal delivery of human growth hormone through RF-microchannels. Pharm Res 22(4):550–555
Li L, Hoffman RM (1997) Topical liposome delivery of molecules to hair follicles in mice. J Dermatol Sci 14(2):101–108
Lindberg M, Forslind B (2000) The skin as a barrier. In: Loden M, Maibach HI (eds) Dry skin and moisturizers, chemistry and function. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 27–37
Liu K-S, Sung KC, Al-Suwayeh SA, Ku M-C, Chu C-C, Wang J-J et al (2011) Enhancement of transdermal apomorphine delivery with a diester prodrug strategy. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 78(3):422–431
Liu S, Jin MN, Quan YS, Kamiyama F, Kusamori K, Katsumi H, Sakane T, Yamamoto A (2013) Transdermal delivery of relatively high molecular weight drugs using novel self-dissolving microneedle arrays fabricated from hyaluronic acid and their characteristics and safety after application to the skin. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 86(2):267–76, pii: S0939-6411(13)00326-3
Loth H (1992) Percutaneous absorption and conventional penetration enhancers. In: Braun-Falco O, Korting HC, Maibach HI (eds) Liposome dermatics. Springer, Berlin, pp 3–10
Megwa SA, Cross SE, Whitehouse MW, Benson HA, Roberts MS (2000) Effect of ion pairing with alkylamines on the in-vitro dermal penetration and local tissue disposition of salicylates. J Pharm Pharmacol 52(8):929–940
Milewski M, Yerramreddy TR, Ghosh P, Crooks PA, Stinchcomb AL (2010) In vitro permeation of a pegylated naltrexone prodrug across microneedle-treated skin. J Control Release 146(1):37–44
Mitragotri S (2000) Synergistic effect of enhancers for transdermal drug delivery. Pharm Res 17(11):1354–1359
Mitragotri S, Farrell J, Tang H, Terahara T, Kost J, Langer R (2000) Determination of threshold energy dose for ultrasound-induced transdermal drug transport. J Control Release 63(1–2):41–52
Mittal A, Sara UVS, Ali A, Aqil M (2009) Status of fatty acids as skin penetration enhancers-a review. Curr Drug Deliv 6(3):274–279
Moghimi HR, Alinaghi A, Erfan M (2010) Investigating the potential of non-thermal microwave as a novel skin penetration enhancement method. Int J Pharm 401(1–2):47–50
Mohammed AJ, AlAwaidy S, Bawikar S, Kurup PJ, Elamir E, Shaban MMA et al (2010) Fractional doses of inactivated poliovirus vaccine in Oman. N Engl J Med 362(25):2351–2359
Monti D, Chetoni P, Burgalassi S, Najarro M, Saettone MF, Boldrini E (2002) Effect of different terpene-containing essential oils on permeation of estradiol through hairless mouse skin. Int J Pharm 237:209–214
Murthy SN, Sammeta SM, Bowers C (2010) Magnetophoresis for enhancing transdermal drug delivery: mechanistic studies and patch design. J Control Release 148(2):197–203
Mutalik S, Parekh HS, Davies NM, Udupa N (2009) A combined approach of chemical enhancers and sonophoresis for the transdermal delivery of tizanidine hydrochloride. Drug Deliv 16(2):82–91
Namjoshi S, Chen Y, Edwards J, Benson HA (2008) Enhanced transdermal delivery of a dipeptide by dermaportation. Biopolymers 90(5):655–662
Narishetty STK, Panchagnula R (2004) Transdermal delivery of zidovudine: effect of terpenes and their mechanism of action. J Control Release 95:367–379
Parikh NH, Babar A, Plakogiannis FM (1984) Transdermal therapeutic systems (Part 1). Pharm Acta Helv 59:290–292
Park J-H, Lee J-W, Kim Y-C, Prausnitz MR (2008) The effect of heat on skin permeability. Int J Pharm 359(1–2):94–103
Park CW, Mansour HM, Oh TO, Kim JY, Ha JM, Lee BJ, Chi SC, Rhee YS, Park ES (2012) Phase behavior of itraconazole-phenol mixtures and its pharmaceutical applications. Int J Pharm 436(1–2):652–658
Paudel KS, Milewski M, Swadley CL, Brogden NK, Ghosh P, Stinchcomb AL (2010) Challenges and opportunities in dermal/transdermal delivery. Ther Deliv 1(1):109–131
Polat BE, Hart D, Langer R, Blankschtein D (2011) Ultrasound-mediated transdermal drug delivery: mechanisms, scope, and emerging trends. J Control Release 152(3):330–348
Prausnitz MR, Langer R (2008) Transdermal drug delivery. Nat Biotechnol 26(11):1261–1268
Prausnitz MR, Mitragotri S, Langer R (2004) Current status and future potential of transdermal drug delivery. Nat Rev Drug Discov 3(2):115–124
Puglia C, Bonina F (2008) Effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids and some conventional penetration enhancers on transdermal delivery of atenolol. Drug Deliv 15(2):107–112
Qandil A, Al-Nabulsi S, Al-Taani B, Tashtoush B (2008) Synthesis of piperazinylalkyl ester prodrugs of ketorolac and their in vitro evaluation for transdermal delivery. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 34(10):1054–1063
Ren C, Fang L, Li T, Wang M, Zhao L, He Z (2008) Effect of permeation enhancers and organic acids on the skin permeation of indapamide. Int J Pharm 350(1–2):43–47
Redelmeier T, Kitson N (1999) Dermatological Applications of Liposomes. In: Janoff AS (Ed.), Liposomes. Rational Design, Marcell Dekker, New York 283–307
Rizwan M, Aqil M, Talegaonkar S, Azeem A, Sultana Y, Ali A (2009) Enhanced transdermal drug delivery techniques: an extensive review of patents. Recent Pat Drug Deliv Formul 3(2):105–124
Roberts MS, Pugh WJ, Hadgraft J (1996) Epidermal permeability-penetrant structure relationships. 2. The effect of H-bonding groups in penetrants on their diffusion through the stratum corneum. Int J Pharm 132:23–32
Rouse JG, Yang J, Ryman-Rasmussen JP, Barron AR, Monteiro-Riviere NA (2007) Effects of mechanical flexion on the penetration of fullerene amino acid-derivatized peptide nanoparticles through skin. Nano Lett 7(1):155–160
Sá GFF, Serpa C, Arnaut LG (2013) Stratum corneum permeabilization with photoacoustic waves generated by piezophotonic materials. J Control Release 167(3):290–300
Salerno C, Carlucci AM, Bregni C (2010) Study of in vitro drug release and percutaneous absorption of fluconazole from topical dosage forms. AAPS PharmSciTech 11(2):986–993
Schaefer H (1996) Skin barrier: principles of percutaneous absorption. Karger, Basel
Schätzlein A, Cevc G (1998) Non-uniform cellular packing of the stratum corneum and permeability barrier function of intact skin: a high-resolution confocal laser scanning microscopy study using highly deformable vesicles (Transfersomes). Br J Dermatol 138(4):583–592
Scheuplein RJ (1967) Mechanism of percutaneous absorption. II. Transient diffusion and the relative importance of various routes of skin penetration. J Invest Dermatol 48(1):79–88
Schreier H, Bouwstra J (1994) Liposomes and niosomes as topical drug carriers: dermal and transdermal drug delivery. J Control Release 30:1–15
Shaoul E, Ayalon A, Tal Y, Lotan T (2012) Transdermal delivery of scopolamine by natural submicron injectors: in-vivo study in pig. PLoS One 7(2):e31922
Siddiqui O, Roberts MS, Polack AE (1989) Percutaneous absorption of steroids: relative contributions of epidermal penetration and dermal clearance. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 17(4):405–424
Sintov AC, Krymberk I, Daniel D, Hannan T, Sohn Z, Levin G (2003) Radiofrequency-driven skin microchanneling as a new way for electrically assisted transdermal delivery of hydrophilic drugs. J Control Release 89(2):311–320
Sivamani RK, Stoeber B, Liepmann D, Maibach HI (2009) Microneedle penetration and injection past the stratum corneum in humans. J Dermatolog Treat 20(3):156–159
Sloan KB, Wasdo SC, Rautio J (2006) Design for optimized topical delivery: prodrugs and a paradigm change. Pharm Res 23(12):2729–2747
Stott PW, Williams AC, Barry BW (1998) Transdermal delivery from eutectic systems: enhanced permeation of a model drug, ibuprofen. J Control Release 50(1–3):297–308
Tezel A, Mitragotri S (2003) Interactions of inertial cavitation bubbles with stratum corneum lipid bilayers during low-frequency sonophoresis. Biophys J 85(6):3502–3512
Touitou E, Dayan N, Bergelson L, Godin B, Eliaz M (2000) Ethosomes-novel vesicular carriers: characterization and delivery properties. J Control Release 65:403–418
Van Kuijk-Meuwissen ME, Mougin L, Junginger HE, Bouwstra JA (1998) Application of vesicles to rat skin in vivo: a confocal laser scanning microscopy study. J Control Release 56(1–3):189–196
Wang S, Kara M, Krishnan TR (1998) Transdermal delivery of cyclosporin-a using electroporation. J Control Release 50(1–3):61–70
Wang Y, Thakur R, Fan Q, Michniak B (2005) Transdermal iontophoresis: combination strategies to improve transdermal iontophoretic drug delivery. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 60(2):179–191
Wilkes GL, Brown IA, Wildnauer RH (1973) The biomechanical properties of skin. CRC Crit Rev Bioeng 1(4):453–495
Williams A (2003) Transdermal and topical drug delivery from theory to clinical practice. Pharmaceutical Press, London
Williams AC, Barry BW (1991) Terpenes and the lipid-protein-partitioning theory of skin penetration enhancement. Pharm Res 8(1):17–24
Williams AC, Barry BW (2004) Penetration enhancers. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 56(5):603–618
Wu PC, Chang JS, Huang YB, Chai CY, Tsai YH (2001) Evaluation of percutaneous absorption and skin irritation of ketoprofen through rat skin: in vitro and in vivo study. Int J Pharm 222:225–235
Yan K, Todo H, Sugibayashi K (2010) Transdermal drug delivery by in-skin electroporation using a microneedle array. Int J Pharm 397(1–2):77–83
Zewert TE, Pliquett UF, Vanbever R, Langer R, Weaver JC (1999) Creation of transdermal pathways for macromolecule transport by skin electroporation and a low toxicity, pathway-enlarging molecule. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 49(1):11–20
Zhao K, Singh J (1999) In vitro percutaneous absorption enhancement of propranolol hydrochloride through porcine epidermis by terpenes/ethanol. J Control Release 62:359–366
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Atkinson, J.P., Maibach, H.I., Dragicevic, N. (2015). Targets in Dermal and Transdermal Delivery and Classification of Penetration Enhancement Methods. In: Dragicevic, N., Maibach, H. (eds) Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers Chemical Methods in Penetration Enhancement. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45013-0_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45013-0_8
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-662-45012-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-662-45013-0
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)