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Youth Delinquency Redefined: The Practice of Scientific Observation and Diagnosis Within the Framework of Belgian Child Protection, 1913–1960

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Youth and Justice in Western States, 1815-1950

Part of the book series: World Histories of Crime, Culture and Violence ((WHCCV))

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Abstract

This chapter brings us into the early practice of observation and diagnosis of juvenile delinquents in Belgium. It takes a closer look at what aimed to be a scientific practice at the Mol Observation Centre for juvenile delinquents, complete with its instruments of observation and diagnosis. An analysis of reports issued by the centre shows the kinds of diagnoses that were used as a basis for intervention as well as the views held on the aetiology of delinquency. Belgium’s 1912 Child Protection Act opened the door to scientific perspectives about children—especially children regarded as problematic, delinquent or abnormal. However, the results of the observation of juvenile delinquents at the Mol Centre do not appear to have made a significant contribution to science.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    FOUCAULT, M., Surveiller et punir, Paris, Gallimard, 1975, 187. Translated: “(T)he examination (…) in it are combined the ceremony of power and the form of the experiment, the deployment of force and the establishment of truth. The superimposition of the power relations and the knowledge relations assumes in the examination all its visible brilliance”.

  2. 2.

    Although the late nineteenth century European movement of “Social Defence” was genuinely a broad social project, designed to prevent antisocial conduct or behaviour of political significance, and thus defend the social order, its doctrine was mainly designed and implemented in the fields of law and (juvenile) crime control. The Social Defence thesis rejected the Classicist penal view of crime as an issue of free will and responsibility. It argued, instead, that crime is a symptom of a “degenerated criminal personality”, shaped both by hereditary antecedents and by environmental upbringing and associations. With Social Defence, therefore, the emphasis in criminology and penal policy turned to concerns about the personal characteristics and needs of the individual criminal, as well as to preventive (hence, a focus on children) and reformative measures. See Tulkens, F. (ed.), Généalogie de la défense sociale en Belgique (1880–1914), Brussels, Ed. Story-Scientia, 1988.

  3. 3.

    Cartuyvels, Y., Christiaens, J., De Fraene, D., Dumortier, E., Juvenile Justice in Belgium seen through the sanctions looking-glass, In: The criminalisation of youth. Juvenile justice in Europe, Turkey and Canada, Bailleau, F. & Cartuyvels, Y. (eds.), Brussels, VUB Press, 2010, 29–31.

  4. 4.

    Garland, D., ‘The birth of the welfare sanction’, British Journal of Law and Society, 1981, 8 (1), 29–45.

  5. 5.

    Christiaens, J., De geboorte van de jeugddelinquent (België, 1830–1930), Brussel, VUB Press, 1999, 430.

  6. 6.

    Christiaens, J., De geboorte van de jeugddelinquent (België, 1830–1930), Brussel, VUB Press, 1999, 430 pp.; Dumortier, E., De jeugdrechter in twijfel. Onderzoek naar het ontstaan en de praktijk van de kinderrechter. België, 1912–1965, Brussel, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, 2006; Dumortier, E., “De missie van de kinderrechter. Een onderzoek naar het ontstaan en de praktijk van de (Antwerpse) kinderrechter (België, 1912–1965)”, Panopticon, 2012, 33 (5), 391–414.

  7. 7.

    Moniteur belge, Government circular 23 September 1916. See Christiaens, J., op. cit., 1999, 321–322.

  8. 8.

    About such practice, see Dumortier, E., De jeugdrechter in twijfel …, 242 (for the beginning years) and 309–316. On contemporary practice in transfer cases, see Van Dijk, C., Deskundigen geven advies aan jeugdrechters` Een onderzoek naar de expertisepraktijk in het kader van de uithandengeving, Brussel, VUB Press, 2010, 361.

  9. 9.

    Delacollette, E., Contribution à l’histoire de la protection de l’enfance en Belgique, Merksplas, Imp. Administrative, 1947, vol. 2, 11.

  10. 10.

    Wets, P., L’enfant de justice. Quinze années d’application de la Loi sur la protection de l’enfance, Bruxelles, 1928, 166; “Aperçu sur les établissements d’éducation d’état pour filles: St-Servais-lez-Namur”, Revue de l’éducation surveillée, 1947 (6), 61–72.

  11. 11.

    Wets, P., L’enfant de justice, op. cit., 198–200.

  12. 12.

    For Belgium see: Levoz, A., La protection de l’enfance en Belgique, Brussel, Goemaere, 1902, 193–364. For the history of practices in France see: Quincy-Lefebvre, P., Familles, institutions et déviances. Une histoire de l’enfance difficile. 1880-fin des années trente, Paris, Economica, 1997, 437 pp. and Pelicier, Y. & Thuillier, G., “Pour une histoire de l’éducation des enfants idiots en France (1830–1914)”, Revue Historique, January–March 1979, 99–130. For England see: Hendrick, H., Child Welfare. England 1872–1989, London, Routledge, 1994, 354.

  13. 13.

    Wallerstein, I., De sociale wetenschappen openen, Brussel, VUB Press, 1996, 37. See more specifically: Dekker, J.J.H., Straffen, redden en opvoeden: het ontstaan en de ontwikkeling van de residentiële heropvoeding in West-Europa, 1814–1914, met bijzondere aandacht voor “Nederlandsch Mettray”, Assen, Van Gorcum, 1985, 148–173.

  14. 14.

    The term “pedology” was suggested in 1893 by an American researcher, Oscar Chrisman. At the end of the nineteenth century, pedology as a comprehensive “science of the child” became active in Europe as an attempt to create a study of children’s behaviour and development in the manner of natural sciences, based on a positivist methodology aimed at discovering “precious facts and empirical laws”. This new science of pedology should be the basis of pedagogy. From its very beginnings, the psychology and the pedagogy of the “abnormal child” was a main area of pedological research interest; the approaches of anthropometrics, psycho-physiology and pedo-physiology were privileged. In Belgium, Doctors Schuyten, Ioteyko and Decroly were the main developers of the field; they were internationally regarded as pioneers. In 1911 the first World Congress in Pedology was held in Brussels, with attendants from 22 countries. World War I effectively put an end to the development of this study in Western Europe, although it remained influential in Belgium and France. See: Depaepe, M., “Experimental Research in Education 1890–1940: historical processes behind the development of a discipline in Western Europe and the United States”, Aspects of Education, Journal of the Institute of Education, University of Hull, 1992 (42), 67–93; Depaepe, M., “Science, Technology and Paedology. The concept of science at the ‘Faculté Internationale de Pédologie’ in Brussels (1912–1914)”, Scientia Paedagogica Experimentalis. International Journal of Experimental Research in Education, 1985 XXII (1), 14–29.

  15. 15.

    For an overview of different schools see: Depaepe, M., Meten om beter te weten? Geschiedenis van de experimenteel-wetenschappelijke richting in de westerse pedagogiek vanaf het einde van de 19de eeuw tot aan de Tweede Wereldoorlog, Leuven, KUL, 1989, 639.

  16. 16.

    La Berge, A.F., “Mothers and infants, nurses and nursing: Alfred Donné and the medicalization of child care in nineteenth century France”, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 1991 (46), 20–43; La Berge, A.F., “Medicalization and moralization: the creches of nineteenth century Paris”, Journal of Social History, 1993 (25), 65–87.

  17. 17.

    Daglish, N.D., “Robert Morant’s hidden agenda? The origins of medical treatment of schoolchildren”, History of Education, 1990, 19 (2), 139–148.

  18. 18.

    “Par un savoir en construction, dès le XIXe siècle, des médecins spécialistes étendent leur autorité scientifique sur les déviances de l’enfant” [through a body of developing knowledge, medical specialists extended their scientific authority over children’s deviance as of the nineteenth century]. Quincy-Lefebvre, P., op. cit., 291.

  19. 19.

    “Lorsque le médecin étudie un malade, il procède suivant un ordre déterminé, consacré par la logique et l’expérience. Il cherche d’abord les symptômes de la maladie, puis ces causes et il pose son diagnostic. Du diagnostic découlent le traitement et le pronostic. J’ai pensé que cette méthode était applicable à l’étude des anormaux, qui ne sont, en somme, que des malades ou infirmes” [When a doctor examines a patient, he follows a fixed set of steps based on logics and experience. First, he searches for the symptoms of the disease, then for its causes, and finally, he builds his diagnosis. The diagnosis determines the treatment options and indicates prognosis. It seemed to me that this method is applicable to the study of abnormal individuals, who are, after all, sick or disabled persons]. Dr. Guillaume, “Deuxième section: enfance anormale - première question – Rapport”, in: Deuxième congrès international de la protection de l’enfance (Rapports), Bruxelles, 1921, vol. I, 283.

  20. 20.

    Healy, W., The Individual Delinquent, Boston, Little Brown and Company, 1915, 788.

  21. 21.

    Renouard, J.M., De l’enfant coupable à l’enfant inadapté. Le traitement social et politique de la déviance, Paris, Centurion, 1990, 107–109.

  22. 22.

    Quincy-Lefebvre, P., op. cit., 189–190.

  23. 23.

    Renouard, J.M., op. cit., 110.

  24. 24.

    Heuyer, G., Enfants anormaux et délinquants juvéniles, Paris, 1914, 336; Heuyer, G., La délinquance juvénile. Etude psychiatrique, Paris, PUF, 1969, 303. See: Renouard, J.M., op. cit., 11.

  25. 25.

    “Ces approches tendent à placer sous le regard médical à la fois l’indiscipliné et rebelle qui ne veut pas obéir et l’indiscipliné instable qui ne peut pas obéir” [These approaches tend to bring within the scope of the medical profession both the unruly, rebellious one who refuses to obey and the unstable undisciplined one who cannot obey], Heuyer, G., Enfants anormaux…, 285; Renouard, J.M., op. cit., 107.

  26. 26.

    Sanchez, C., Sous le regards de Caïn. L’impossible observation des mineurs délinquants (1945–1972), Ramonville Saint-Agne, Erès, 1995, 75–77.

  27. 27.

    See Van Der Linde, I., Stoute jongens: van boefjes tot pupillen. Een geschiedenis van het observatiehuis van de vereniging “hulp voor onbehuisden”, 1914–1970, Amsterdam, Stadsdrukkerij, 1993, 139; Wezen en boefjes. Zes eeuwen zorg in wees- en kindertehuizen, Groenveld, S.; Dekker, J.J.H.; Willemse, T.H. & Dane, J. (Red.), Hilversum, Verloren, 1997, 351–352.

  28. 28.

    Van Der Linde, I., op. cit., 30–31. Grewel, F., “Doel en methode der observatie van moeilijke kinderen”, Maandblad voor berechting en reclassering, 1933, 353–362.

  29. 29.

    Burt, C., The Young Delinquent, Kent, University of London Press, 1945 (1925), 11–12. Bierens De Haan, P. 1932. Misdadige kinderen. Een psychologische paedagogische studie. Arnhem: Van Loghum Slaterus. Carp, E. 1932. Het misdadige kind in psychologisch opzicht. Amsterdam: Scheltema and Holkema.

  30. 30.

    Delacollette, E., op. cit., vol. 2, 11; D’hoker, M., “Contribution de Maurice Rouvroy (1879–1945) aux soins en résidence de la jeunesse à problèmes psycho-sociaux pendant l’entre-deux-guerres”, Paedagogica Historica, 1990, 26 (2), 211–222. De Brandt, M. 1985. Leven en werk van Maurice Rouvroy (1879–1954). Unpublished Master thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

  31. 31.

    Delacollette, E., op. cit., vol. 2, 11.

  32. 32.

    Rouvroy, M., “L’établissement central d’observation à Moll-Huttes”, La protection de l’enfance, 1922, VI (35), 284–285.

  33. 33.

    State Archives Beveren, Centraal Observatiegesticht Mol (1913–1970), Jaarverslagen, no. 35–60.

  34. 34.

    Wets, P., L’enfant de justice, op. cit., 166. See also Fry, M.S., “A Belgian psychological laboratory”, The Howard Journal, 1924, 121–129.

  35. 35.

    “Le service central de cette institution pour l’examen médico-pédagogique et la sériation des mineurs de justice est non une station de psychotechnique constructive avec des conclusions statistiques à portée générale, spéculative et lointaine, mais une clinique de psychologie appliquée à l’éducation et à la rééducation immédiates des sujets, une clinique de psycho-pédagogie. L’E.C.O. de Moll-Huttes est depuis des ans classé dans les residential Centres par Cyril Burt, (qui) considère que la station de séjour prolongé est la plus fructueuse” [The Institute’s central unit for the medico-pedagogical observation and serialisation of juvenile delinquents is not a psychotechnics laboratory producing general, speculative and abstract conclusions, but rather a clinic where psychology is applied directly to the education and re-education of the subjects: a psycho-pedagogical clinic. For years now, the Mol central observation centre has been classified among the residential centres by Cyril Burt, (who) regards the phase of prolonged stay as the most advantageous and valuable of all]. Rouvroy, M., “La clinique psychologique belge de la protection de l’enfance”, Revue belge de pédagogie, 1933–1934, XV, 143.

  36. 36.

    See note 10.

  37. 37.

    Rouvroy, M., L’observation pédagogique des enfants de justice, Bruxelles, 1921, 119.

  38. 38.

    D’hoker, M., l.c., 220–221. Rouvroy, M., 1921 op. cit., 198–203.

  39. 39.

    Rouvroy, M., 1921 op. cit., 186–194.

  40. 40.

    On the link with the changing practices of juvenile courts up until 1965, see the study of Dumortier, E., De jeugdrechter in twijfel …., 2006.

  41. 41.

    Rouvroy, M. 1921. L’observation pédagogique des enfants de justice. Brusells: Office de Publicité. 27–29.

  42. 42.

    Ibid., 36–52. For an overview of the categories and subcategories, see 53–55.

  43. 43.

    “(D)’un côté l’enfant décidément mauvais et ne présentant aucun signe d’amendabilité proche ou d’amendement réalisé; à l’opposite, l’enfant resté bon ou amendé au point de pouvoir être assimilé pour le régime aux enfants conservés. […]. Les conservés et les amendés ne peuvent être mêlés aux pervers”. Ibid., 54.

  44. 44.

    Ibid., 54.

  45. 45.

    Statistique judiciaire de la Belgique (1916–1960), Table Mineurs jugés. Résultat des poursuites par arrondissement, Brussels.

  46. 46.

    More details on the use of placements under observation in Mol by the Belgian juvenile judges, as well as on the profile of the pupils for the period 1916–1941 can be found in: De Koster, M., “Tot maat van het recht. De vroege ontwikkeling van de wetenschap van het ontspoorde en criminele kind in het Centrale Observatiegesticht in Mol (1913–1941)”, in N. Bakker, S. Braster, M. Rietveld-Van Wingerden, A. Van Gorp (eds.), Kinderen in gevaar. De geschiedenis van pedagogische zorg voor risicojeugd: Jaarboek voor de Geschiedenis van Opvoeding en Onderwijs 2007, Assen, Van Gorcum, 2007, 94–119.

  47. 47.

    The annual reports of the Mol Observation Centre have been preserved from 1930 onwards. Most follow more or less the same structure, but they have not all been preserved complete. Furthermore, tables and data do not always follow the same information structure; tables providing an overview of the classification of all observed cases are only available from 1940 onwards, and only for certain years.

  48. 48.

    De Koster, M., “Tot maat van het recht. De vroege ontwikkeling van de wetenschap van het ontspoorde en criminele kind in het Centrale Observatiegesticht in Mol (1913–1941)”, op.cit., 100–114.

  49. 49.

    Van Dijk, C., Deskundigen geven advies aan jeugdrechters: Een onderzoek naar de expertisepraktijk in het kader van de uithandengeving, Brussel, VUB Press, 2010, 361.

  50. 50.

    Van Dijk, C., Ibid.; Dumortier, E., 2006. op.cit.

  51. 51.

    State Archives Beveren, Centraal Observatiegesticht Mol (1913–1970), Persoonsdossiers van de minderjarigen, no. 1242; 1383; 1386; 1421; 1450.

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    Jenneke Christiaens

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Christiaens, J. (2018). Youth Delinquency Redefined: The Practice of Scientific Observation and Diagnosis Within the Framework of Belgian Child Protection, 1913–1960. In: Trépanier, J., Rousseaux, X. (eds) Youth and Justice in Western States, 1815-1950. World Histories of Crime, Culture and Violence. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66245-9_9

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