Abstract
Neurons in the mammalian central nervous system are extremely vulnerable to oxygen deprivation and blood supply insufficiency. Hypoxia/ischemia can produce considerably longer or sustained changes in ionic concentrations that are characterized by enhanced K+ efflux and Na+-, Ca2+- and Cl− influx. The hypoxic/ischemic disruption of ionic homeostasis is an initial and key step for hypoxic/ischemic neuronal injury and death. Limiting hypoxic/ischemic ion dysregulation and stabilization of ionic homeostasis in the initial stage of hypoxia/ischemia is an efficient strategy in the treatment of stroke and ischemia-related neurodegenerative conditions. Substantial studies from our and many independent laboratories have demonstrated that activation of the δ-opioid receptor (DOR) is neuroprotective against hypoxic/ischemic insults. In this chapter, we first updated the recent progress in the studies of DOR neuroprotection against hypoxic/ischemic insults and the features and potential mechanisms of hypoxia/ischemia-induced disruption of major cation homeostasis. On the basis of this discussion, we addressed the important role of DOR in the homeostatic maintenance of these ions and the underlying mechanisms. Based on our recent work and current literature, we have drawn an initial picture of how DOR protects neurons against hypoxia/ischemia through the regulation of ionic homeostasis. In brief, DOR signals inhibit Na+ influx and reduce the increase in intracellular Ca2+, thus decreasing the excessive K+ leakage. This DOR-mediated action involves a PKC-dependent and PKA-independent signaling pathway.
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Abbreviations
- [Ca2+]i:
-
Cytosolic free Ca2+ concentrations
- [Ca2+]o:
-
Extracellular Ca2+ concentrations
- [K+]e:
-
Extracellular K+ concentrations
- [K+]i:
-
Intracellular K+ concentrations
- [Na+]i:
-
Intracellular Na+ concentrations
- [Na+]o:
-
Extracellular Na+ concentrations
- AD:
-
Anoxic depolarization
- AMPAR:
-
AMPA receptor
- ASICs:
-
Acid-sensing ion channels
- BK:
-
Ca2+-activated K+ channel
- CCE:
-
Capacitative Ca2+ entry
- CNS:
-
Central nervous system
- CPP:
-
3-(2-Carboxypiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic acid
- DAG:
-
Diacylglycerol
- DOR:
-
δ-Opioid receptor
- EAATs:
-
Excitatory amino-acid transporters
- EPSPs/EPSCs:
-
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials/currents
- ER:
-
Endoplasmic reticulum
- GPCRs:
-
G protein-coupled receptors
- H2S:
-
Hydrogen sulfide
- HPC:
-
Hypoxia preconditioning
- iGluRs:
-
Ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs)
- IMM:
-
Inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM)
- IP3 :
-
Inositol triphosphahate
- IP3Rs:
-
IP3 receptors
- KAR:
-
Kainate receptor
- KNa :
-
Na+-activated K+ channel
- KOR:
-
κ-Opioid receptor
- LDH:
-
Lactate dehydrogenase
- MAM:
-
Mitochondria-associated membrane
- MCU:
-
Mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter
- MOR:
-
μ-Opioid receptor
- NCCa-ATP :
-
Ca2+-activated, ATP-sensitive nonselective cation channel
- NCX:
-
Na+/Ca2+ exchanger
- NHE:
-
Na+/H+ exchanger
- NKCC:
-
Na+-K+-2Cl− cotransporter
- NMDAR:
-
NMDA receptor
- NMDG+ :
-
N-Methyl-D-glucamine
- NOP:
-
Nociceptin receptor
- NSCCs:
-
Non-selective cation channels
- OGD:
-
Oxygen-glucose deprivation
- OMM:
-
Outer mitochondrial membrane
- PLC:
-
Phospholipase C
- PMCA:
-
Membrane Ca2+-ATPase
- PTP:
-
Permeability transition pores
- ROS/RNS:
-
Reactive oxygen/nitrogen species
- RYRs:
-
Ryanodine receptors
- SERCA:
-
Sarco-endoplasmic reticular Ca2+ ATPase
- SOCCs:
-
Store-operated Ca2+ channels
- STIM:
-
Stromal interaction molecule
- TRP:
-
Transient receptor potential channels
- TTX:
-
Tetrodotoxin
- VGCCs:
-
Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels
- VGSCs:
-
Voltage-gated Na+ channels
- ΔΨm:
-
Mitochondrial potential
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by NIH (AT-004422, and HD-034852) and Vivian L Smith Neurologic Foundation.
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Chao, D., Xia, Y. (2015). The δ-Opioid Receptor and Stabilization of Brain Ionic Homeostasis in Hypoxia/Ischemia. In: Xia, Y. (eds) Neural Functions of the Delta-Opioid Receptor. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25495-1_6
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