Abstract
The common cold is the result of an upper respiratory tract infection causing an acute syndrome characterised by a combination of non-specific symptoms, including sore throat, cough, fever, rhinorrhoea, malaise, headache, and myalgia. Respiratory viruses, alone or in combination, are the most common cause. The course f illness can be complicated by bacterial agents, causing pharyngitis or sinusitis, but the are a rare cause of cold and flu-like illnesses (CFLIs). Our understanding of CFLI epidemiology has been enhanced by molecular detection methods, particularly polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing. PCR has not only improved detection of previously known viruses, but within the last decade has resulted in the detection of many divergent novel respiratory virus species. Human rhinovirus (HRV) infections cause nearly all CFLIs and they can be responsible for asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. HRVs are co-detected with other respiratory viruses in statistically significant patterns, with HRVs occurring in the lowest proportion of co-detections, compared to most other respiratory viruses. Some recently identified rhinoviruses may populate an entirely new putative HRV species; HRV C. Further work is required to confirm a causal role for these newly identified viruses in CFLIs. The burden of illness associated with CFLIs is poorly documented, but where data are available, the impact of CFLIs is considerable. Individual infections, although they do not commonly result in more severe respiratory tract illness, are associated with substantial direct and indirect resource use. The product of frequency and burden for CFLIs is likely to be greater in magnitude than for any other respiratory syndrome, but further work is required to document this. Our understanding of the viral causes of CLFIs, although incomplete, has improved in recent years. Documenting burden is also an important step in progress towards improved control and management of these illnesses.
Chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Keywords
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus
- Acute Otitis Medium
- Common Cold
- Respiratory Virus
- Invasive Pneumococcal Disease
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
References
Wat D (2004) The common cold:A review of the literature. Eur J Intern Med 15:79–88
Mäkelä MJ, Puhakka T, Ruuskanen O, Leinonen M, Saikku P, Kimpimäki M, Blomqvist S, Hyypiä T, Arstila P (1998) Viruses and bacteria in the etiology of the common cold. J Clin Microbiol 36:539–542
Arruda E, Pitkäranta A, Witek TJ, Doyle CA, Hayden FG (1997) Frequency and natural history of rhinovirus infections in adults during autumn. J Clin Microbiol 35:2864–2868
van den Hoogen BG, de Jong JC, Groen J, Kuiken T, de Groot R, Fouchier RAM, Osterhaus ADME (2001) A newly discovered human pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tract disease. Nat Med 7:19–24
van der Hoek L, Pyrc K, Jebbink MF, Vermeulen-Oost W, Berkhout RJM, Wolthers KC, Wertheim-van Dillen PME, Kaandorp J, Spaargaren J, Berkhout B (2004) Identification of a new human coronavirus. Nat Med 10:368–373
Woo PCY, Lau SKP, Chu C-M, Chan K-H, Tsoi H-W, Huang Y, Wong BHL, Poon RWS, Cai JJ, Luk W-K et al. (2005) Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia. J Virol 79:884–895
Allander T, Tammi MT, Eriksson M, Bjerkner A, Tiveljung-Lindell A, Andersson B (2005) Cloning of a human parvovirus by molecular screening of respiratory tract samples. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 102:12891–12896
Arden KE, McErlean P, Nissen MD, Sloots TP, Mackay IM (2006) Frequent detection of human rhinoviruses, paramyxoviruses, coronaviruses, and bocavirus during acute respiratory tract infections. J Med Virol 78:1232–1240
Lamson D, Renwick N, Kapoor V, Liu Z, Palacios G, Ju J, Dean A, St GK, Briese T, Lipkin WI (2006) MassTag polymerase-chain-reaction detection of respiratory pathogens, including a new rhinovirus genotype, that caused influenza-like illness in New York State during 2004–2005. J Infect Dis 194:1398–1402
Lau SKP, Yip CCY, Tsoi H-W, Lee RA, So L-Y, Lau Y-L, Chan K-H, Woo PCY, Yuen K-Y (2007) Clinical features and complete genome characterization of a distinct human rhinovirus genetic cluster, probably representing a previously undetected HRV species, HRV-C, associated with acute respiratory illness in children. J Clin Microbiol 45:3655–3664
McErlean P, Shackleton LA, Andrewes E, Webster DR, Lambert SB, Nissen MD, Sloots TP, Mackay IM (2008) Distinguishing molecular features and clinical characteristics of a putative new rhinovirus species, human rhinovirus C (HRV C). P LoS One 3:e1847
Esposito S, Bosis S, Niesters HG, Tremolati E, Sabatini C, Porta A, Fossali E, Osterhaus AD, Principi N (2008) Impact of human bocavirus on children and their families. J Clin Microbiol 46:1337–1342
Illi S, von ME, Lau S, Bergmann R, Niggemann B, Sommerfeld C, Wahn U (2001) Early childhood infectious diseases and the development of asthma up to school age: A birth cohort study. BMJ 322:390–395
Hershenson MB, Johnston SL (2006) Rhinovirus infections: More than a common cold. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 174:1284–1285
Heikkinen T, Järvinen A (2003) The common cold. Lancet 361:51–59
Johnston SL, Sanderson G, Pattemore PK, Smith S, Bardin PG, Bruce CB, Lambden PR, Tyrrell DAJ, Holgate ST (1993) Use of polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of picornavirus infection in subjects with and without respiratory symptoms. J Clin Microbiol 31:111–117
Turner RB (1998) The common cold. Pediatr Ann 27:790–795
Pappas DE, Hendley JO, Hayden FG, Winther B (2008) Symptom profile of common colds in school-aged children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 27:8–11
Eccles R (2007) Mechanisms of symptoms of the common cold and influenza. Br J Hosp Med 68:578–582
Pizzichini MMM, Pizzichini M, Efthimiadis A, Chauhan AJ, Johnston SL, Hussack P, Mahony J, Dolovich J, Hargreave FE (1998) Asthma and natural colds. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:1178–1184
Lemanske RF, Gern JE, Gangnon RE (2006) Viral specimen collection by parents increases response rate in population-based virus studies. J Allergy Clin Immunol 117:956–957
Phillips CA, Melnick JL, Grim CA (1968) Rhinovirus infections in a student population: Isolation of the five new serotypes. Am J Epidemiol 87:447–456
Minor TE, Dick EC, Peterson JA, Docherty DE (1974) Failure of naturally acquired rhinovirus infections to produce temporal immunity to heterologous serotypes. Infect Immun 10:1192–1193
Cooney MK, Kenny GE (1977) Demonstration of dual rhinovirus infect humans by isolation of different serotypes in human heteroploid (HeLa) and human diploid fibroblast cell cultures. J Clin Microbiol 5:202–207
Cooney MK, Hall CB, Fox JP (1972) The Seattle virus Watch. III. Evaluation of isolation methods and summary of infections detected by virus isolations. Am J Epidemiol 96: 286–305
Renwick N, Schweiger B, Kapoor V, Liu Z, Villari J, Bullmann R, Miething R, Briese T, Lipkin WI (2007) A recently identified rhinovirus genotype is associated with severe respiratory-tract infection in children in Germany. J Infect Dis 196: 1754–1760
Lee W-M, Kiesner C, Pappas T, Lee I, Grindle K, Jartti T, Jakiela B, Lemanske RF, Shult PA, Gern JE (2007) A diverse group of previously unrecognized human rhinoviruses are common causes of respiratory illness in infants. PLoS One 2: e966
Peltola V, Waris M, Österback R, Susi P, Ruuskanen O, Hyypiä T (2008) Rhinovirus transmission within families with children: Incidence of symptomatic and asymptomatic infections. J Infect Dis 197: 382–389
Yusuf S, Piedimonte G, Auais A, Demmler G, Krishnan S, van Caseele P, Singleton R, Broor S, Parveen S, Avendano L. et al. (2007) The relationship of meteorological conditions to the epidemic activity of respiratory syncytial virus. Epidemiol Infect 135: 1077–1090
Mackay IM Waliuzzaman Z, Chidlow GR, Fegredo DC, Laingam S, Adamson P, Harnett GB, Rawlinson W, Nissen MD, Sloots TP (2004) Use of the P gene to genotype human metapneumovirus identifies 4 viral subtypes. J Infect Dis 190: 1913–1918
Mackay IM, Bialasiewicz S, Jacob KC, McQueen E, Arden KE, Nissen MD, Sloots TP (2006) Genetic diversity of human metapneumovirus over 4 consecutive years in Australia. J Infect Dis 193:1630–1633
McErlean P, Shackleton LA, Lambert SB, Nissen MD, Sloots TP, Mackay IM (2007) Characterisation of a newly identified human rhinovirus, HRV-QPM, discovered in infants with bronchiolitis. J Clin Virol 39:67–75
Glezen WP, Paredes A, Taber LH (1980) Influenza in children relationship to other respiratory agents. JAMA 243:1345–1349
Chew FT, Doraisingham s, Ling AE, Kumarasinghe G, Lee BW (1998) Seasonal trends of viral respiratory tract infections in the tropics. Epidemiol Infect 121: 121–128
Jansen AG, Sanders EA, Van der Ende A, van Loon AM, Hoes AW, Hak E (2008) Invasive pneumococcal and meningococcal disease: Association with influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus activity? Epidemiol Infect 136: 1448–1454
Johnson HE, Altman R, Hamre D, Ward T (1964) Viral infections and the common cold. Chest 45: 46–53
Al-Sunaidi M, Williams CH, Hughes PJ, Schnurr DP, Stanway G (2007) Analysis of a new human parechovirus allows the definition of parechovirus types and the identification of RNA structural domains. J Virol 81:1013–1021
Hamre D, Connelly AP, Procknow JJ (1966) Virologic studies of acute respiratory disease in young adults. IV. Virus isolations during four years of surveillance. Am J Epidemiol 83: 238–249
Johnston NW, Johnston SL, Norman GR, Dai J, Sears MR (2006) The September epidemic of asthma hospitalization: School children as disease vectors. J Allergy Clin Immunol 117:557–562
Deal EC Jr, McFadden ER Jr, Ingram RH Jr, Breslin FJ, Jaeger JJ (1980) Airway responsiveness to cold air and hyperpnea in normal subjects and in those with hay fever and asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 121:621–628
Winther B, Hayden FG, Hendley JO (2006) Picornavirus infections in children diagnosed by RT-PCR during longitudinal surveillance with weekly sampling: Association with symptomatic illness and effect of season. J Med Virol 78: 644–650
Vesa S, Kleemola M, Blomqvist S, Takala A, Kilpi T, Hovi T (2001) Epidemiology of documented viral respiratory infections and acute otitis media in a cohort of children followed from two to twenty-four months of age. Pediatr Infect Dis J 20:574–581
Silva MJ, Ferraz C, Pissarra S, Cardoso MJ, Simões J, Vitór AB (2007) Role of viruses and atypical bacteria in asthma exacerbations among children in Oporto (Portugal). Allergol Immunopathol 35:4–9
Miller EK, Lu X, Erdman DD, Poehling KA, Zhu Y, Griffin MR, Hartvert TV, Anderson LJ, Weinberg GA, Hall CB et al. (2007) Rhinovirus-associated hospitalizations in young children. J Infect Dis 195:773–781
Gwaltney JM Jr, Hendley JO, Simon G, Jordan WS Jr (1966) Rhinovirus infections in an industrial population. I. The occurrence of illness. N Engl J Med 275: 1261–1268
Fox JP, Cooney MK, Hall CE (1975) The Seattle virus watch. V. Epidemiologic observation of rhinovirus infections, 1965-1969 in families with young children. Am J Epidemiol 101:122–143
Lambert SB, Allen KM, Druce JD, Birch CJ, Mackay IM, Carlin JB, Carapetis JP, Sloots TP, Nissen MD, Nolan TM (2007) Community epidemiology of human metapneumovirus, human coronavirus NL63, and other respiratory viruses in healthy preschool-aged children using parent-collected specimens. Pediatrics 120: e929–e937
Jartti T, Lehtinen P, Vuorinen T, Österback R, van den Hoogen B, Osterhaus ADME, Ruuskanen O (2004) Respiratory picornaviruses and respiratory syncytial virus as causative agents of acute expiratory wheezing in children. Emerg Infect Dis 10: 1095–1101
Wald TG, Shult P, Krause P, Miller BA, Drinka P, Gravenstein S (1995) A rhinovirus outbreak among residents of a long-term care facility. Ann Intern Med 123:588–593
Dick EC, Blumer CR, Evans AS (1967) Epidemiology of infections with rhinovirus types 43 and 55 in a group of university of Wisconsin student families. Am J Epidemiol 86:386–400
Hament JM, Kimpen JL, Fleer A, Wolfs TF (1999) Respiratory viral infection predisposing for bacterial disease: A concise review. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 26:189–195
Peltola VT, McCullers JA (2004) Respiratory viruses predisposing to bacterial infections: Role of neuraminidase. Pediatr Infect Dis J 23:S87–S97
Selinger DS, Reed WP, McLaren LC (1981) Model for studying bacterial adherence to epithelial cells infected with viruses. Infect Immun 32:941–944
McCullers JA, Bartmess KC (2003) Role of neuraminidase in lethal synergism between influenza virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Infect Dis 187: 1000–1009
Okamoto S, Kawabata S, Nakagawa I, Okuno Y, Goto T, Sano K, Hamada S (2003) Influenza A virus-infected hosts boost an invasive type of Streptococcus pyogenes infection in mice. J Virol 77:4104–4112
Ishizuka S, Yamaya M, Suzuki T, Takahashi H, Ida S, Sasaki T, Inoue D, Sekizawa K, Nishimura H, Sasaki H (2003) Effects of rhinovirus infection on the adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae to cultured human airway epithelial cells. J Infect Dis 188:1928–1939
Oliver BG, Lim S, Wark P, Laza-Stanca V, King N, Black JL, Burgess JK, Roth M, Johnston SL (2008) Rhinovirus exposure impairs immune responses to bacterial products in human alveolar macrophages. Thorax 63:519–525
Watson M, Gilmour R, Menzies R, Ferson M, McIntyre P (2006) The association of respiratory viruses, temperature, and other climatic parameters with the incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease in Sydney, Australia. Clin Infect Dis 42:211–215
Murdoch DR, Jennings LC (2009) Association of respiratory virus activity and environmental factors with the incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease. J Infect 58:37–46
Madhi SA, Klugman KP (2004) A role for Streptococcus pneumoniae in virus-associated pneumonia. Nat Med 10:811–813
Kaiser L, Aubert J-D, Pache J-C, Deffernez C, Rochat T, Garbino J, Wunderli W, Meylan P, Yerly S, Perrin L et al. (2006) Chronic rhinoviral infection in lung transplant recipients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 174:1392–1399
Larson HE, Reed SE, Tyrrell DAJ (1980) Isolation of rhinoviruses and coronaviruses from 38 colds in adults. J Med Virol 5:221–229
Denny FW, Clyde WA Jr (1986) Acute lower respiratory tract infections in nonhospitalized children. J Pediatr 108:635–646
Whelen AC, Persing DH (1996) The role of nucleic acid amplification and detection in the clinical microbiology laboratory. Annu Rev Microbiol 50: 349–373
Carman WF, Wallace LA, Walker J, McIntyre S, Noone A, Christie P, Millar J, Douglas JD (2000) Rapid virological surveillance of community influenza infection in general practice. Br Med J 321:736–737
Ogilvie M (2001) Molecular techniques should not now replace cell culture in diagnostic virology laboratories. Rev Med Virol 11:351–354
Leland DS, Ginocchio CC (2007) Role of cell culture for virus detection in the age of technology. Clin Microbiol Rev 20:49–78
Mahony JB (2008) Detection of respiratory viruses by molecular methods. Clin Microbiol Rev 21:716–747
Andrewes CH, Chaproniere DM, Gompels AEH, Pereira HG, Roden AT (1953) Propagation of common-cold virus in tissue cultures. Lancet 265: 546–547
Andrewes CH (1966) Rhinoviruses and common colds. Annu Rev Med 17: 361–370
Pelon W, Mogabgab WJ, Phillips LA, Pierce WE (1957) A cytopathogenic agent isolated from naval recruits with mild respiratory illnesses. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 94:262–267
Price WH (1956) The isolation of a new virus associated with respiratory clinical disease in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 42:892–896
Olson LC, Willhight M, Buescher EL (1972) Recovery and characterization of non-cytopathogenic rhinoviruses. J Gen Virol 17:237–240
Douglas RG Jr, Cate TR, Gerone PJ, Couch RB (1966) Quantititative rhinovirus shedding patterns in volunteers. Am Rev Respir Dis 94:159–167
D’Alessio DJ, Meschievitz CK, Peterson JA, Dick CR, Dick EC (1984) Shortduration exposure and the transmission of rhinoviral colds. J Infect Dis 150: 189–194
Cate TR, Couch RB, Fleet WF, Griffith WR, Gerone PJ, Knight V (1965) Production of tracheobronchitis in volunteers with rhinovirus in a small-particle aerosol. Am J Epidemiol 81:95–105
Hendley JO, Wenzel RP, Gwaltney JM Jr (1973) Transmission of rhinovirus colds by self-inoculation. N Engl J Med 288:1361–1364
Sethi SK (1978) Reproducible plaquing system for rhinovirus serotypes in HeLa cells — Agarose suspension. Acta Virol 22:60–65
Gwaltney JM Jr (1966) Micro-neutralization test for identification of rhinovirus serotypes. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 122:1137–1141
Behbehani AM, Lee LH (1964) Growth, plaque production and cationic stabilization of rhinovirus type 1 (Echovirus 28). J Bacteriol 88: 1680–1611
Fiala M, Kenny GE (1966) Enhancement of rhinovirus plaque formation in human heteroploid cell cultures by magnesium and calcium. J Bacteriol 92: 1717–1715
Parsons R, Tyrrell DAJ (1961) A plaque method for assaying some viruses isolated from common colds. Nature 189:640–642
Papadopoulos NG, Sanderson G, Hunter J, Johnston SL (1999) Rhinoviruses replicated effectively at lower airway temperatures. J Med Virol 58:100–104
Rosenbaum MJ, De Berry P, Sullivan EJ, Pierce WE, Mueller RE, Peckinpaugh RO (1971) Epidemilogy of the common cold in military recruits with emphasis on infections by rhinovirus types 1A, 2, and two unclassified rhinoviruses. Am J Epidemiol 93:183–193
Mogabgab WJ, Pelon W (1957) Problems in characterizing and identifying an apparently new virus found in association with mild respiratory disease in recruits. Ann N Y Acad Sci 67:403–412
Hendley JO, Edmondson WP Jr, Gwaltney JM Jr (1972) Relation between naturally acquired immunity and infectivity of two rhinoviruses in volunteers. J Infect Dis 125:243–248
Relman DA (2003) Shedding light on microbial detection. N Engl J Med 349: 2162–2163
Kuypers J, Wright N, Ferrenberg J, Huang M-L, Cent A, Corey L, Morrow R (2006) Comparison of real-time PCR assays with fluorescent-antibody assays for diagnosis of respiratory virus infections in children. J Clin Microbiol 44: 2382–2388
Falsey AR, Walsh EE (2006) Viral pneumonia in older adults. Clin Infect Dis 42
Johnston SL, Bardin PG, Pattemore PK (1993) Viruses as precipitants of asthma symptoms. III. Rhinoviruses: Molecular biology and prospects for future intervention. Clin Exp Allergy 23:237–246
Ketler A, Hamparian VV, Hilleman MR (1962) Characterization and classification of ECHO 28-rhinovirus-coryzavirus agents. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 110: 821–831
Conant RM, Hamparian VV (1968) Rhinoviruses: Basis for a numbering system. II. Serologic characterization of prototype strains. J Immunol 100: 107–113
Gwaltney JM Jr, Hendley JO (1978) Rhinovirus transmission: One if by air, two if by hand. Am J Epidemiol 107:357–361
Ledford RM, Patel NR, Demenczuk TM, Watanyar A, Herbertz T, Collett MS, Pevear DC (2004) VP1 sequencing of all human rhinovirus serotypes: Insights into genus phylogeny and susceptibility to antiviral capsid-binding compounds. J Virol 78:3663–3674
Oberste MS, Maher K, Kilpatrick DR, Pallansch LA (1999) Molecular evolution of the human enteroviruses: Correlation of serotype with VP1 sequence and application to picornavirus classification. J Virol 73:1941–1948
van de Pol AC, van Loon AM, Wolfs TF, Jansen NJ, Nijhuis M, Breteler EK, Schuurman R, Rossen JW (2007) Increased detection of respiratory syncytial virus, influenza viruses, parainfluenza viruses, and adenoviruses with real-time PCR in samples from patients with respiratory symptoms. J Clin Microbiol 45: 2260–2262
Pitkäranta A, Arruda E, Malmberg H, Hayden FG (1997) Detection of rhinovirus in sinus brushings of patients with acute community-acquired sinusitis by reverse transcription-PCR. J Clin Microbiol 35:1791–1793
Kämmerer U, Kunkel B, Korn K (1994) Nested PCR for specific detectio nand rapid identification of human picornaviruses. J Clin Microbiol 32:285–291
Andeweg AC, Bestebroer TM, Huybreghs M, Kimman TG, de Jong JC (1999) Improved detection of rhinoviruses in clinical samples by using a newly developed nested reverse transcription-PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol 37:524–530
Aberle JH, Aberle SW, Pracher E, Hutter H-P, Kundi M, Popw-Kraupp T (2005) Impact on clinical course of disease and interferon-γ response. Pediatr Infect Dis J 24:605–610
Versteegh FGA, Weverling GJ, Peeters MF, Wilbrink B, Veenstra-van Schie MTM, van Leewen-Gerritsen JM, Mooi-Kokenberg EANM, Schellekens JFP, Roord JJ (2005) Community-acquired pathogens associated with prolonged coughing in children: A prospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect 11: 801–807
Hutchinson AF, Ghimire AK, Thompson MA, Black JF, Brand CA, Lowe AJ, Smallwood DM, Vlahos R, Bozinovski S, Brown GV et al. (2007) A community-based, ty-based, time-matched, case-control study of respiratory viruses and exacerbations of COPD. Respir Med 101: 2472–2481
Arruda E, Hayden FG (1993) Detection of human rhinovirus RNA in nasal washings by PCR. Mol Cell Probe 7: 373–379
Lu X, Holloway B, Dare RK, Kuypers J, Yagi S, Williams JV, Hall CB, Erdman DD (2008) Real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay for comprehensive detection of human rhinoviruses. J Clin Microbiol 46: 533–539
Suvilehto J, Roivainen M, Seppänen M, Meri S, Hovi T, Carpén O, Pitkäranta A (2006) Rhinovirus/enterovirus RNA in tonsillar tissue of children with tonsillar disease. J Clin Virol 35: 292–297
Mackay IM, Bustin S, Andrade JM, Nissen MD, Sloots TP (2007) Quantification of microorganimsms: Not human, not dimple, not quick. In: IM Mackay (ed): Real-time PCR in microbiology. Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, 133–182
Stensballe LG, Trautner S, Kofoed PE, Nante E, Hedegaard K, Jensen IP, Aaby P (2002) Comparison of nasopharyngeal aspirate and nasal swab specimens for detection of respiratory syncytial virus in different settings in a developing country. Trop Med Int Health 7: 317–321
Macfarlane P, Denham J, Assous J, Hughes C (2005) RSV testing in bronchiolitis: Which nasal sampling method is best? Arch Dis Child 90: 634–635
Lambert SB, Whiley DM, O’Neill NT, Andrews EC, Canavan FM, Bletchly C, Siebert DJ, Sloots TP, Nissen MD (2008) Comparing nose-throat swabs and nasopharyngeal aspirates collected from children with symptoms for respiratory virus identification using real-time polymerase chain reaction. Pediatrics 122: e615–e620
Lambert SB, Allen KM, Nolan TM (2008) Parent-collected respiratory specimens — A novel method for respiratory virus and vaccine efficacy research. Vaccine 26: 1826–1831
Brunstein JD, Cline CL, McKinney S, Thomas E (2008) Evidence from multiplex molecular assays for complex multipathogen interactions in acute respiratory infections. J Clin Microbiol 46: 97–102
Stott EJ, Eadie MB, Grist NR (1969) Rhinovirus infections of children in hospital: Isolation of three possibly new rhinovirus serotypes. Am J Epidemiol 90: 45–52
Tiveljung-Lindell A, Rotzen-Ostlund M, Gupta S, Ullstrand R, Grillner L, Zweygberg-Wirgart B, Allander T (2009) Development and implementation of a molecular diagnostic platform for daily rapid detection of 15 respiratory viruses. J Med Virol 81: 167–175
Richard N, Komurian-Pradel F, Javouhey E, Perret M, Rajoharison A, Bagnaud A, Billaud G, Vernet G, Lina B, Floret D et al. (2008) The impact of dual viral infection in infants admitted to a pediatric intensive care unit associated with severe bronchiolitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 27: 1–5
Gunson RN, Collins TC, Carman WF (2005) Real-time RT-PCR detection of 12 respiratory viral infections in four triplex reactions. J Clin Virol 33: 341–344
Nolte FS, Marshall DJ, Rasberry C, Schievelbein S, Banks GG, Storch GA, Arens MQ, Buller RS, Prudent JR (2007) MultiCode-PLx system for multiplexed detection of seventeen respiratory viruses. J Clin Microbiol 45: 2779–2786
Mahony J, Chong S, Merante F, Yaghoubian S, Sinha T, Lisle C, Janeczko R (2007) Development of a respiratory virus panel test for detection of twenty human respiratory viruses by use of multiplex PCR and a fluid microbead-based assay. J Clin Microbiol 45: 2965–2970
Drews SJ, Blair J, Lombos E, DeLima C, Burton L, Mazzulli T, Low DE (2008) Use of the Seeplex RV Detection kit for surveillance of respiratory viral out-breaks in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Ann Clin Lab Sci 38: 376–379
Yoo SJ, Kuak EY, Shin BM (2007) Detection of 12 respiratory viruses with two-set multiplex reverse transcriptase-PCR assay using a dual priming oligonucleotide system. Korean J Lab Med 27: 420–427
Roh KH, Kim J, Nam MH, Yoon S, Lee CK, Lee K, Yoo Y, Kim MJ, Cho Y (2008) Comparison of the Seeplex reverse transcription PCR assay with the R-mix viral culture and immunofluorescence techniques for detection of eight respiratory viruses. Ann Clin Lab Sci 38: 41–46
Han J, Swan DC, Smith SJ, Lum SH, Sefers SE, Unger ER, Tang YW (2006) Simultaneous amplification and identification of 25 human papillomavirus types with Templex technology. J Clin Microbiol 44: 4157–4162
Brunstein J, Thomas E (2006) Direct screening of clinical specimens for multiple respiratory pathogens using the Genaco Respiratory Panels 1 and 2. Diagn Mol Pathol 15: 169–173
Li H, McCormac MA, Estes RW, Sefers SE, Dare RK, Chappell JD, Erdman DD, Wright PF, Tang Y-W (2007) Simultaneous detection and high-throughput identification of a panel of RNA viruses causing respiratory tract infections. J Clin Microbiol 45: 2105–2109
Briese T, Palacios G, Kokoris M, Jabado O, Liu Z, Renwick N, Kapoor V, Casas I, Pozo F, Limberger R et al. (2005) Diagnostic system for rapid and sensitive differential detection of pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis 11: 310–313
Dominguez SR, Briese T, Palacios G, Hui J, Villari J, Kapoor V, Tokarz R, Glode MP, Anderson MS, Robinson CC et al. (2008) Multiplex MassTag-PCR for respiratory pathogens in pediatric nasopharyngeal washes negative by conventional diagnostic testing shows a high prevalence of viruses belonging to a newly recognized rhinovirus clade. J Clin Virol 43: 219–222
Wang D, Coscoy L, Zylberberg M, Avila PC, Boushey HA, Ganem D, DeRisi JL (2002) Microarray-based detection and genotyping of viral pathogens. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 15687–15692
Ostroff R, Ettinger A, La H, Rihanek M, Zalman L, Meador III J, Patick AK, Worland S, Polisky B (2001) Rapid multiserotype detection of human rhinoviruses on optically coated silicon surfaces. J Clin Virol 21: 105–117
Shanmukh S, Jones L, Driskell J, Zhao Y, Dluhy R, Tripp RA (2006) Rapid and sensitive detection of respiratory virus molecular signatures using a silver nanorod array SERS substrate. Nano Lett 6: 2630–2636
Bae HG, Nitsche A, Teichmann A, Biel SS, Niedrig M (2003) Detection of yellow fever virus: A comparison of quantitative real-time PCR and plaque assay. J Virol Methods 110: 185–191
Jartti T, Lee W-M, Pappas T, Evans M, Lemanske RF, Gern JE (2008) Serial viral infections in infants with recurrent respiratory illnesses. Eur Respir J 32: 314–320
Mackay IM, Arden KE, Nissen MD, Sloots TP (2007) Challenges facing real-time PCR characterization of acute respiratory tract infections. In: IM Mackay (ed): Real-Time PCR in Microbiology: From Diagnosis to Characterization. Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, 269–318
Brouard J, Freymuth F, Vabret A, Jokic M, Guillois B, Duhamel JF (2000) Viral co-infections in immunocompetent infants with bronchiolitis: Prospective epidemiologic study (in French). Arch Pediatr 7 (Suppl 3): 531s–535s
Papadopoulos NG, Moustaki M, Tsolia M, Bossios A, Astra E, Prezerakou A, Gourgiotis D, Kafetzis D (2002) Association of rhinovirus infection with increased disease severity in acute bronchiolitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165: 1285–1289
Maggi F, Pifferi M, Vatteroni M, Fornai C, Tempestini E, Anzilotti S, Lanini L, Andreoli E, Ragazzo V, Pistello M et al. (2003) Human metapneumovirus associated with respiratory tract infections in a 3-year study of nasal swabs from infants in Italy. J Clin Microbiol 41: 2987–2991
Peltola J, Waris M, Hyypiä T, Ruuskanen O (2006) Respiratory viruses in children with invasive pneumococcal disease. Clin Infect Dis 43: 266–268
Juvén T, Mertsola J, Waris M, Leinonen M, Meurman O, Roivainen M, Eskola J, Saikku P, Ruuskanen O (2000) Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in 254 hospitalized children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 19: 293–298
Garcia-Garcia ML, Calvo C, Perez-Brena P, De Cea JM, Acosta B, Casas I (2006) Prevalence and clinical characteristics of human metapneumovirus infections in hospitalized infants in Spain. Pediatr Pulmonol 41: 863–871
van der Zalm MM, van Ewijk BE, Wilbrink B, Uiterwaal CSPM, Wolfs TFW, van der Ent CK (2009) Respiratory pathogens in children with and without respiratory symptoms. J Pediatr 154: 396–400
Aberle JH, Aberle SW, Pracher E, Hutter H-P, Kundi M, Popw-Kraupp T (2005) Single versus dual respiratory virus infections in hospitalized infants: Impact on clinical course of disease and interferon-gamma response. Pediatr Infect Dis J 24: 605–610
Greensill J, McNamara PS, Dove W, Flanagan B, Smyth RL, Hart CA (2003) Human metapneumovirus in severe respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Emerg Infect Dis 9: 372–375
Simon A, Wilkesmann A, Muller A, Schildgen O (2007) HMPV infections are frequently accompanied by co-infections. Pediatr Pulmonol 42: 98
Mackay IM (2007) Human bocavirus: Multisystem detection raises questions about infection. I Infect Dis 196: 968–970
Winther B, Alper CM, Mandel EM, Doyle WJ, Hendley JO (2007) Temporal relationships between colds, upper respiratory viruses detected by polymerase chain reaction, and otitis media in young children followed through a typical cold season. Pediatrics 119: 1069–1075
Alper CM, Doyle WJ, Winther B, Hendley JO (2008) Upper respiratory virus detection without parent-reported illness in children is virus-specific. J Clin Virol 43: 120–122
Glezen WP, Denny FW (1973) Epidemiology of acute lower respiratory disease in children. N Engl J Med 288: 498–505
Hitchcock G, Tyrrell DA (1960) Some virus isolations from common colds.II. Virus interference in tissue cultures. Lancet 1: 237–239
Mizgerd JP (2006) Lung infection-a public health priority. PloS Medicine 3: e76
Bardin PG, Johnston SL, Pattemore PK (1992) Viruses as precipitants of asthma symptoms. II. Physiology and mechanisms. Clin Exp Allergy 22: 809–822
Kusel MMH, de Klerk NH, Holt PG, Kebadze T, Johnston SL, Sly PD (2006) Role of respiratory viruses in acute upper and lower respiratory tract illness in the first year of life. Pediatr Infect Dis J 25: 680–686
Hakonarson H, Maskeri N, Carter C, Hodinka RL, Campbell D, Grunstein MM (1998) Mechanism of rhinovirus-induced changes in airway smooth muscle responsiveness. J Clin Invest 102: 1732–1741
Gern JE, Galagan DM, Jarjour NN, Dick EC, Busse WW (2008) Detection of rhinovirus RNA in lower airway cells during experimentally induced infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 155: 1159–1161
Jakiela B, Brockman-Schneider R, Amineva S, Lee W-M, Gern JE (2008) Basal cells of differentiated bronchial epithelium are more susceptible to rhinovirus infection. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 38: 517–523
Gern JE, Busse WW (2002) Relationship of viral infections to wheezing illnesses and asthma. Nat Rev Immunol 2: 132–138
Martin JG, Siddiqui S, Hassan M (2006) Immune responses to viral infections: Relevance for asthma. Paediatr Respir Rev 7S: S125–S127
Krilov L, Pierik L, Keller E, Mahan K, Watson D, Hirsch M, Hamparian V, McIntosh K (1986) The association of rhinoviruses with lower respiratory tract disease in hospitalized patients. J Med Virol 19: 345–352
Monto AS, Bryan ER, Ohmit S (1987) Rhinovirus infections in Tecumseh, Michigan: Frequency of illness and number of serotypes. J Infect Dis 156: 43–49
El-Sahly HM, Atmar RL, Glezen WP, Greenberg SB (2000) Spectrum of clinical illness in hospitalized patients with “Common cold” virus infections. Clin Infect Dis 31: 96–100
Glezen WP, Loda FA, Clyde WA, Senior RJ, Sheaffer CI, Conley WG, Denny FW (1971) Epidemiologic patterns of acute lower respiratory disease of children in a pediatric group practice. J Pediatr 78: 397–406
Bloom HH, Forsyth BR, Johnson KM, Chanock RM (1963) Relationship of rhinovirus infection to mild upper respiratory disease. JAMA 186: 38–45
Collinson J, Nicholson KG, Cancio E, Ashman J, Ireland DC, Hammersley V, Kent J, O’Callaghan C (1996) Effects of upper respiratory tract infections in patients with cystic fibrosis. Thorax 51: 1115–1122
Andréoletti L, Lesay M, Deschildre A, Lambert V, Dewilde A, Wattré P (2000) Differential detection of rhinoviruses and enteroviruses RNA sequences associated with classical immunofluorescence assay detection of respiratory virus antigens in nasopharyngeal swabs from infants with bronchiolitis. J Med Virol 61: 341–346
Rakes GP, Arruda E, Ingram JM, Hoover GE, Zambrano JC, Hayden FG, Platts-Mills TAE, Heymann PW (1999) Rhinovirus and respiratory syncytial virus in wheezing children requiring emergency care. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 159: 785–790
Henderson FW, Clyde WA, Collier AM, Denny FW, Senior RJ, Sheaffer CI, Conley WG, Christian RM (1979) The etiologic and epidemiologic spectrum of bronchiolitis in pediatric practice. J Pediatr 95: 183–190
Martinez FD (2007) Gene-environment interactions in asthma. Proc Am Thorac Soc 4: 26–31
Mallia P, Johnston SL (2006) How viral infections cause exacerbation of airway diseases. Chest 130: 1203–1210
Pattemore PK, Johnston SL, Bardin PG (1992) Viruses as precipitants of asthma symptoms. I. Epidemiology. Clin Exp Allergy 22: 325–336
Heymann PW, Platts-Mills TAE, Johnston SL (2005) Role of viral infections, atopy and antiviral immunity in the etiology of wheezing exacerbations among children and young adults. Pediatr Infect Dis J 24: S217–S222
Lidwell OM, Sommerville T (1951) Observations on the incidence and distribution of the common cold in a rural community during 1948 and 1949. J Hyg (Lond) 49: 365–381
Green RM, Custovic A, Sanderson G, Hunter J, Johnston SL, Woodcock A (2007) Synergism between allergens and viruses and risk of hospital admission with asthma: Case-control study. Br Med J 324: 1–5
Johnston SL, Pattemore PK, Sanderson G, Smith S, Lampe F, Josephs L, Symington P, O’Toole S, Myint SH, Tyrrell DAJ et al. (1995) Community study of role of viral infections in exacerbations of asthma in 9–11 year old children. Br Med J 310: 1225–1229
Minor TE, Dick EC, DeMeo AN, Ouellette JJ, Cohen M, Reed CE (1974) Viruses as precipitants of asthmatic attacks in children. JAMA 227: 292–298
Roldaan AC, Masural N (1982) Viral respiratory infections in asthmatic children staying in a mountain resort. Eur J Respir Dis 63: 140–150
Lemanske RF (2002) The childhood origins of asthma (COAST) study. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 15: 1–6
van der Zalm MM, Uiterwaal CSPM, de Jong BM, Wilbrink B, van der Ent CK (2006) Viral specimen collection by parents increases response rate in population-based virus studies. J Allergy Clin Immunol 117: 955–957
Lemanske RF, Jackson DJ, Gangnon RE, Evans MD, Li Z, Shult PA, Kirk CJ, Reisdorf E, Roberg KA, Anderson EL et al. (2005) Rhinovirus illnesses during infancy predict subsequent childhood wheezing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 116: 571–577
Minor TE, Baker JW, Dick EC, DeMeo AN, Ouellette JJ, Cohen M, Reed CE (1974) Greater frequency of viral; respiratory infections in asthmatic children as compared with their nonasthmatic siblings. J Pediatr 85: 472–477
Nicholson KG, Kent J, Ireland DC (1993) Respiratory viruses and exacerbations of asthma in adults. Br Med J 307: 982–986
Rawlinson WD, Waliuzzaman Z, Carter IW, Belessis YC, Gilbert KM, Morton JR (2003) Asthma exacerbations in children are associated with rhinovirus but not human metapneumovirus infection. J Infect Dis 187: 1314–1318
Yoo J, Tcheurekdjian H, Lynch SV, Cabana M, Boushey HA (2007) Microbial manipulation of immune function for asthma prevention. Inferences from clinical trials. Proc Am Thorac Soc 4:277–282
Fedson DS, Nichol KL (2006) Influenza vaccination: Policy versus evidence: No gap between policy and evidence. BMJ 333:1020
Drummond M, Sculpher M, Torrance G (2005) Methods for the economic evaluation of health care programmes. Oxford University Press: Oxford
Michaud CM, Murray CJ, Bloom BR (2001) Burden of disease—implications for future research. JAMA 285:535–539
Monto AS (2002) Epidemiology of viral respiratory infections. Am J Med 112:4S–12S
Revai K, Dobbs LA, Nair S (2007) Incidence of acute otitis media and sinusitis complicating upper respiratory tract infection: The effect of age. Pediatrics 119: e1408–1412
Bridges-Webb C, Britt H, Miles DA, Neary S, Charles J, Traynor V (1993) Morbidity and treatment in general practice in Australia. Aust Fram Physician 22:336-339–342-346
Fedrick AM, Monto AS, Nightengale B (2003) The economic burden of noninfluenza-related viral respiratory tract infection in the United States. Arch Intern Med 163:487–494
Bertino JS (2002) Cost burden of viral respiratory infections: Issues for formulary decision makers. Am J Med 112:42S–49S
Molinari NA, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Messonnier ML (2007) The annual impact of seasonal influenza in the US: Measuring disease burden and costs. Vaccine 25: 5086–5096
O’Shea TM, Sevick MA, Givner LB (1998) Costs and benefits of respiratory syncytial virus immunoglobulin to prevent hospitalization for lower respiratory tract illness in very low birth weight infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 17:587–593
Numa A (200) Outcome of respiratory syncytial virus infection and a costbenefit analysis of prophylaxis. J Paediatr Child Health 36:422–427
Rietveld E, DeJonge HC, Polder JJ (2004) Anticipated costs of hospitalization for respiratory syncytial virus infection in young children at risk. Pediatr Infect Dis J 23:523–529
Paramore LC, Ciuryla V, Ciesla G (2004) Economic impact of respiratory syncytial virus-related illness in the US: An analysis of national databases. Pharmacoeconomics 22:275–284
Lambert S, O’Grady K-A, Gabriel S, Carter R, Nolan T (2004) The cost of seasonal respiratory illnesses in Australian children: The dominance of patient and family costs and implications for vaccine use. Commun Dis Intell 28:510–516
Lambert SB, Allen KM, Druce JD (2005) Respiratory illness during winter: A cohort study of urban children from temperate Australia. J Paediatr Child Health 41:125–129
Lambert SB, Allen KM, Carter RC, Nolan TM (2008) The cost of communitymanaged viral respiratory illnesses in a cohort of healthy preschool-aged children. Respir Res 9:1–11
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2007) Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Economic Indicators: May 2004
Turner J, Tran T, Birch C (2004) Higher than normal seasonal influenza activity in Victoria, 2003. Commun Dis Intell 28:175–180
Hollinghurst S, Gorst C, Fahey T (2008) Measuring the financial burden of acute cough in pre-school children: A cost of illness study. BMC Fam Pract 9: 10
Coleman MS, Washington ML, Orenstein WA (2006) Interdisciplinary epidemiologic and economic research needed to support a universal childhood influenza vaccination policy. Epidemiol Rev 28:41–46
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Birkhäuser Verlag Basel/Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mackay, I.M., Arden, K.E., Lambert, S.B. (2009). Epidemiology. In: Eccles, R., Weber, O. (eds) Common Cold. Birkhäuser Advances in Infectious Diseases. Birkhäuser Basel. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-9912-2_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-9912-2_4
Publisher Name: Birkhäuser Basel
Print ISBN: 978-3-7643-9894-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-7643-9912-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)