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Disease Control, Public Health and Food Safety: Food Policy Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

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Abstract

This chapter reviews the agro-economic environment in Sub-Saharan Africa as it relates to animal production, public health, and disease control to contextualize the concept of risk and food safety. Drawing mostly from the experience of Zambia, it analyzes food safety actors and interests in Sub-Saharan Africa, and provides an outline of the general regulatory framework that is in place on the continent, to explain how food safety governance is impacted by different interest groups and agendas. Two case studies are provided, zoonotic tuberculosis and avian influenza. The chapter demonstrates how the two zoonoses, both important food safety concerns, have been prioritized differently in the case of Zambia, as a result of multiple socio-political and economic factors. The chapter concludes that, in order to be useful, a definition of food safety risks should include multiple contextual issues and stakeholders along the food supply chain. It is important to keep in mind what national food safety governance actors perceive the risks to be, and how their definitions fit into the broader picture of food safety in general. Food safety governance regulatory processes should take into consideration local realities, local food supply chains and local food safety threats to ensure the appropriateness and sustainability of any and all disease control measures instituted. Context will always matter, and therefore, local ecological, biological and policy considerations should be given primacy.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Buzby and Roberts (2009), pp. 1851–1862.

  2. 2.

    Dewaal et al. (2010), pp. 483–490; WHO-AFRO (2012).

  3. 3.

    ibid.

  4. 4.

    see Kimball (2006).

  5. 5.

    The American Veterinary Medical Association has defined One Health as “the collaborative effort of multiple disciplines — working locally, nationally, and globally — to attain optimal health for people, animals and the environment.” American Veterinary Medical Association, One Health (2008), available at https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/Reports/Documents/onehealth_final.pdf (last accessed Jan 2015).

  6. 6.

    Kahn et al. (2007), pp. 5–19.

  7. 7.

    Krauss et al. (2003).

  8. 8.

    Hubálek (2003), pp. 403–404; Mwacalimba (2013).

  9. 9.

    Slingenbergh (2004).

  10. 10.

    Lee et al. (2002).

  11. 11.

    Walt and Gilson (1994), pp. 353–370.

  12. 12.

    Lee and Koivusalo (2005), p. e8.

  13. 13.

    ibid.

  14. 14.

    Walt and Gilson (1994).

  15. 15.

    Navarro (1998) pp. 742–743.

  16. 16.

    Greger (2007), pp. 243–299.

  17. 17.

    Kimball (2006); Greger (2007).

  18. 18.

    Kimball (2006).

  19. 19.

    Id., pp. 13−14.

  20. 20.

    The social determinants of human health are the conditions of the environment where people live and work (Exworthy 2008).

  21. 21.

    Horlick-Jones (1998), pp. 64–67.

  22. 22.

    Douglas and Wildavsky (1982).

  23. 23.

    Mwacalimba (2012), pp. 391–405.

  24. 24.

    Stirling and Scoones (2009).

  25. 25.

    A double burden of disease is a state in which the prevalence of risk factors for chronic diseases (diabetes, heart diseases and cancers) increase at the same time that traditional health problems such as maternal and child deaths caused by infectious diseases are still major public health threats for the majority of the population.

  26. 26.

    Green (1999).

  27. 27.

    WHO-AFRO 2012.

  28. 28.

    Wilson and Otsuki (2001).

  29. 29.

    Muma et al. (2014).

  30. 30.

    Statutory Instruments are a means of creating delegated or secondary legislation.

  31. 31.

    Walt and Gilson (1994).

  32. 32.

    Mwacalimba (2013).

  33. 33.

    WHO-AFRO (2012).

  34. 34.

    The Codex Alimentarius Commission was established jointly by the United Nations’ (UN) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the World Health Organization (WHO).

  35. 35.

    Ibid.

  36. 36.

    Ibid.

  37. 37.

    FAO/WHO (2005).

  38. 38.

    WHO-AFRO (2012).

  39. 39.

    Kingdon (2003).

  40. 40.

    Walt and Gilson (1994), Buse et al. (2005).

  41. 41.

    Walt (1994).

  42. 42.

    WHO-AFRO (2012).

  43. 43.

    Omamo and Farrington (2004).

  44. 44.

    Ndulo (2006).

  45. 45.

    WHO-AFRO (2012).

  46. 46.

    Mudenda (2005).

  47. 47.

    Barling and Lang (2004).

  48. 48.

    The date of the original text for this law is April 11th, 1930. It was last consolidated in 2006. The Act ‘makes provision with respect to matters affecting public health in Zambia including prevention and suppression of infectious diseases including diseases communicable from animal to man, sanitation, protection of food, supply of water, protection from mosquitoes and pollution in general.

    The Minister is granted certain regulation-making powers in respect of infectious diseases. Importation of animals may be restricted. The Act also prohibits the sale of unwholesome food and grants in general regulation-making powers to the Minister especially for the control of quality and hygiene of food. Water shall be kept in such a manner so as to avoid stagnant water. Local authorities shall take all possible measure for the prevention of the pollution of water and to purify any polluted water supply. The Minister may make, on the recommendation of the Central Board of Health, certain Orders for the protection of milk.

    Descriptors (Livestock): animal health; pests/diseases; data collection/reporting

    Descriptors (Food): food quality control/food safety; hygiene/sanitary procedures; milk/dairy products

    Descriptors (Water): water supply; freshwater quality/freshwater pollution

    Descriptors (Waste & hazardous substances): pollution control; waste disposal’ Cap 295 of the Laws of Zambia.

  49. 49.

    This act originated as S.I. No. 244 of 1972 as at 2006. The Food and Drugs regulations ‘prescribe that no manufacturer or distributor of, or dealer in, any article shall sell such article to a vendor unless he gives to the vendor a warranty in a form set out in the Schedule and applicable to such sale. “Article” in the Act means any food, drug, cosmetic or device and any labelling or advertising materials in respect thereof or anything used for the preparation, preservation, packing or storing of any food, drug, cosmetic or device.

    Descriptors (Livestock): animal health; drugs

    Descriptors (Food): food quality control/food safety’ Cap 303 of the Laws of Zambia.’ Source: http://faolex.fao.org/.

  50. 50.

    FAO (2005).

  51. 51.

    The year this law was repelled is revealing. Zambia only became independent on October 24th, 1964.

  52. 52.

    In some by-laws of this act, animal health and food safety is addressed. For instance, concern the slaughtering of animals and sale of meat in the area under the jurisdiction of the Katete District Council. They also provide for the control of stray animals.

    ‘Butcheries shall be approved by the District Council. A person shall not expose, offer, deposit, accept or have in his or her possession for resale any meat unless such meat has been examined and passed by the Meat Inspector as fit for human consumption and stamped and marked accordingly.

    Descriptors (Livestock): grazing/transhumance; slaughtering

    Descriptors (Food): food quality control/food safety; meat; slaughtering; inspection’ Source: http://faolex.fao.org/.

  53. 53.

    WHO-AFRO (2012).

  54. 54.

    This is the French acronym (Office International des Epizooties—OIE).

  55. 55.

    Thiermann (2005), pp. 101–108.

  56. 56.

    Bruckner (2009), pp. 141–146; OIE (2010); OIE (2004).

  57. 57.

    Thiermann (2005).

  58. 58.

    Zepeda et al. (2005), pp. 125–140.

  59. 59.

    e.g. Vallat and Pastoret (2009), pp. 503–510.

  60. 60.

    Hueston (2003), pp. 3–12.

  61. 61.

    Green (2012), pp. 377–381; Mwacalimba and Green (2014).

  62. 62.

    Stiglitz (2009), pp. 363–365.

  63. 63.

    Thomson et al. (2004), pp. 429–433.

  64. 64.

    Ibid.

  65. 65.

    Upton and Otte (2004).

  66. 66.

    Rweyemamu and Astudillo (2002), pp. 765–773.

  67. 67.

    Tambi and Bessin (2006).

  68. 68.

    see also MacDonald and Horton (2009) pp. 273–274.

  69. 69.

    Mwacalimba (2013).

  70. 70.

    Stärk et al. (2006), p. 20; Zepeda et al. (2005).

  71. 71.

    Tambi and Bessin (2006).

  72. 72.

    Hall et al. (2004), pp. 425–444.

  73. 73.

    Chang (2003).

  74. 74.

    Hampson (1997), pp. S8–S13; Domenech et al. (2006), pp. 90–107; Kruk (2008), pp. 529–534.

  75. 75.

    Domenech et al. (2006).

  76. 76.

    see Scoones (2010).

  77. 77.

    Smith et al. (2002).

  78. 78.

    Mwacalimba et al. (2013), pp. 274–279.

  79. 79.

    Zinsstag et al. (2007), pp. 527–531.

  80. 80.

    Mwacalimba (2013).

  81. 81.

    Grootenhuis and Olubayo (1993), pp. 55–59.

  82. 82.

    Kock (2003), ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/nonfao/LEAD/x6198e/x6198e00.pdf.

  83. 83.

    O’Reilly and Daborn (1995), pp. 1–46.

  84. 84.

    Ayele et al. (2004), pp. 924–937.

  85. 85.

    Colston (2001); Gibson et al. (2004), pp. 431–434.

  86. 86.

    Niemann et al. (2000), pp. 152–157.

  87. 87.

    Brosch et al. (2002), pp. 3684–3689.

  88. 88.

    Colston (2001).

  89. 89.

    Hancox (2000), pp. 87–93.

  90. 90.

    Cosivi et al. (1998).

  91. 91.

    Ayele et al. (2004), pp. 924–937.

  92. 92.

    Menzies and Neill (2000), pp. 92–106.

  93. 93.

    Hancox (2000).

  94. 94.

    Menzies and Neill (2000).

  95. 95.

    Ibid.

  96. 96.

    O’Reilly and Daborn (1995); Cosivi et al. (1998).

  97. 97.

    Moda et al. (1996), pp. 103–108; Grange (2001); Mfinanga et al. (2003a, b), pp. 933–941.

  98. 98.

    Wilkins (2000).

  99. 99.

    Unger et al. (2003).

  100. 100.

    O’Reilly and Daborn (1995); Grange (2001).

  101. 101.

    Ameni et al. (2003).

  102. 102.

    Unger et al. (2003).

  103. 103.

    Moda et al. (1996); Grange (2001); Mfinanga et al. (2003a, b), pp. 695–704.

  104. 104.

    Gibson et al. (2004).

  105. 105.

    Aranaz et al. (2004), pp. 2602–2608.

  106. 106.

    FSAI Scientific Committee (2003), http://www.fsai.ie/publications/other/zoonotic_tuberculosis.pdf.

  107. 107.

    Neill et al. (2001).

  108. 108.

    Moda et al. (1996).

  109. 109.

    Moda et al. (1996); Kazwala et al. (2001), pp. 87–91.

  110. 110.

    Mfinanga et al. (2003a, b).

  111. 111.

    cited by Unger et al. (2003).

  112. 112.

    Tamiru et al. (2013), pp. 288–295.

  113. 113.

    Ameni et al. (2003).

  114. 114.

    Ayele et al. (2004).

  115. 115.

    Kazwala et al. (2001).

  116. 116.

    Ibid.

  117. 117.

    Cook et al. (1996).

  118. 118.

    Ameni et al. (2003).

  119. 119.

    Grange (2001).

  120. 120.

    O’Reilly and Daborn (1995).

  121. 121.

    Grange (2001).

  122. 122.

    Ayele et al. (2004).

  123. 123.

    O’Reilly and Daborn (1995); Grange (2001).

  124. 124.

    Ayele et al. (2004).

  125. 125.

    Ibid.

  126. 126.

    cited by Ayele et al. (2004).

  127. 127.

    Zumla et al. (2000), pp. 259–268.

  128. 128.

    UNGASS (2012).

  129. 129.

    Mwacalimba et al. (2013).

  130. 130.

    Munyeme et al. (2010a, b).

  131. 131.

    Mumba (2004).

  132. 132.

    Mwacalimba et al. (2013).

  133. 133.

    Cook et al. (1996).

  134. 134.

    Chabwela and Mumba (1998).

  135. 135.

    Munyeme et al. (2008).

  136. 136.

    Ibid.

  137. 137.

    Mumba (2004); see also Phiri et al. (2011), pp. 20–27.

  138. 138.

    Munyeme et al. (2008).

  139. 139.

    Mumba et al. (2011), p. 137.

  140. 140.

    Kells and Lear (1959).

  141. 141.

    Ameni et al. (2003).

  142. 142.

    Kazwala et al. (2001); Ayele et al. (2004).

  143. 143.

    Munyeme and Munang’andu (2011).

  144. 144.

    Jeffery et al. (1991), cited by Kock et al. (2002), pp. 482–484.

  145. 145.

    Cook et al. (1996); Cosivi et al. (1998); Pandey (2004), pp. 17–20.

  146. 146.

    Munyeme et al. (2010a, b), pp. 305–308.

  147. 147.

    Siamudaala et al. (2003).

  148. 148.

    Simasiku et al. (2008).

  149. 149.

    Siamudaala et al. (2003).

  150. 150.

    Ayele et al. (2004).

  151. 151.

    Siamudaala (2004), pp. 48–52.

  152. 152.

    Mwacalimba et al. (2013).

  153. 153.

    Avian influenza exists in two forms, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI). Continuous existence of LPAI virus in avian populations may provide chances for the virus to undergo mutation and convert to a highly pathogenic form. Highly pathogenic avian influenza, especially of the H5 and H7 subtypes, has the potential to infect human beings.

  154. 154.

    Xu et al. (1999), pp. 15–19; Webster et al. (2002), pp. 118–126.

  155. 155.

    Shortridge et al. (1998), pp. 331–342.

  156. 156.

    Ibid.

  157. 157.

    Ibid.

  158. 158.

    Fidler (2004b), pp. 799–804; WHO (2005b); Webster and Hulse (2005), pp. 415–416.

  159. 159.

    Shortridge et al. (1998).

  160. 160.

    Sims et al. (2005), pp. 159–164.

  161. 161.

    WHO (2005b).

  162. 162.

    Sims et al. (2005).

  163. 163.

    WHO (2005b).

  164. 164.

    Alexander (2007); Paul et al. (2010).

  165. 165.

    WHO (2005b).

  166. 166.

    Sims et al. (2005).

  167. 167.

    GRAIN (2007).

  168. 168.

    WHO (2004), at http://www.who.int/mediacentre/releases/2004/pr7/en/.

  169. 169.

    WHO (2005b).

  170. 170.

    Sims et al. (2005); Sims and Narrod (2008).

  171. 171.

    WHO (2004).

  172. 172.

    WHO (2005b).

  173. 173.

    WHO-AFRO (2005).

  174. 174.

    Ibid.

  175. 175.

    Beigel et al. (2005), pp. 1374–1385.

  176. 176.

    WHO (2005a), http://www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/H5N1-9reduit.pdf.

  177. 177.

    Chen et al. (2005), pp. 191–192; Webster and Govorkova (2006), pp. 2174–2177; Alexander (2007), pp. 5637–5644; Cattoli et al. (2009), p. e4842.

  178. 178.

    WHO (2005c).

  179. 179.

    Webster and Hulse (2005); Sims et al. (2005); Sims and Narrod (2008), www.fao.org/avianflu.

  180. 180.

    WHO (2010), http://www.who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/country/cases_table_2010_11_19/en/index.html.

  181. 181.

    WHO (2005a, b); GRAIN (2006); Eurosurveillance (2006) E061221.1.; Kilpatrick at al. (2006), pp. 19368–19373; FAO (2010), www.fao.org/avianflu/en/maps.html.

  182. 182.

    Conly and Johnston (2004), pp. 252–254; Kilpatrick et al. (2006); Bartlett (2006), pp. 141–144.

  183. 183.

    Scoones and Forster (2008a).

  184. 184.

    WHO (2006), www.who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/avian_faqs/en/index.html; ALive (2006); Karesh et al. (2005), pp. 1000–1002; Ong et al. (2008); Scoones and Forster (2008a).

  185. 185.

    Osterholm (2005), pp. 1839–1842.

  186. 186.

    Monto et al. (2006), pp. S92–S97.

  187. 187.

    Nicoll (2005), pp. 210–211.

  188. 188.

    Ong et al. (2008); UN (2010), http://www.un-influenza.org/node/4040.

  189. 189.

    WHO (2005a); Webster and Hulse (2005).

  190. 190.

    Fidler (2004a); WHO/DFID-AHP (2005); Fidler (2008), pp. 88–94; Scoones and Forster (2008b), http://www.steps-centre.org/PDFs/Avian%20flu%20final%20w%20cover.pdf; Rabinowitz et al. (2008), pp. 224–229.

  191. 191.

    Osterholm (2005).

  192. 192.

    Webster (1997), pp. S14–S19; Hollenbeck (2005), pp. 87–90.

  193. 193.

    Käferstein et al. (1997), pp. 503–510; Hampson (1997), pp. S8–S13; Kimball et al. (2005), p. 3; Kimball (2006).

  194. 194.

    Morens and Fauci (2007), pp. 1018–1028.

  195. 195.

    WHO (2006).

  196. 196.

    Horowitz (2005).

  197. 197.

    Scoones and Forster (2008a).

  198. 198.

    Osterholm (2005).

  199. 199.

    see Hampson (1997).

  200. 200.

    see Webster (1997); Osterholm (2005).

  201. 201.

    Van Kerkhove et al. (2009), pp. 6345–6352; Soares Magalhaes et al. (2010), p. 10.

  202. 202.

    Gilbert et al. (2008), pp. 4769–4774.

  203. 203.

    Yupiana et al. (2010), pp. e800–e805.

  204. 204.

    e.g. Kasemsuwan et al. (2009).

  205. 205.

    Pitrelli and Sturloni (2007), pp. 336–343.

  206. 206.

    Capua and Alexander (2004), pp. 393–404.

  207. 207.

    Alexander (2007).

  208. 208.

    van den Berg (2009), pp. 93–111.

  209. 209.

    Normile (2006), p. 1225; Chen et al. (2005).

  210. 210.

    See e.g. Webe and Stirlianakis (2007), pp. 1139–1143.

  211. 211.

    FAO (2004); WHO (2005a).

  212. 212.

    Mwacalimba and Green (2014).

  213. 213.

    Scoones and Forster (2008b).

  214. 214.

    Yee et al. (2009), pp. 325–340.

  215. 215.

    Scoones and Forster (2008a).

  216. 216.

    Stirling and Scoones (2009); Scoones and Forster (2008b).

  217. 217.

    Nicoll (2005).

  218. 218.

    GRAIN (2006); GRAIN (2007).

  219. 219.

    Garrett and Fidler (2007), p. e330; Fidler (2008).

  220. 220.

    Elbe (2010), pp. 476–485.

  221. 221.

    Id.

  222. 222.

    Burgos and Otte (2008).

  223. 223.

    Jonas (2008) cited by Burgos and Otte (2008).

  224. 224.

    WHO (2005a); ALive (2006).

  225. 225.

    WHO-AFRO (2005); ALive (2006); UNSIC and World Bank (2008).

  226. 226.

    UNSIC (2006a, b); Scoones and Foster (2008a).

  227. 227.

    WHO-AFRO (2005); UNSIC (2006a, b).

  228. 228.

    Ortu et al. (2008), pp. 161–169; Ortu et al. (2007).

  229. 229.

    WHO-AFRO (2005).

  230. 230.

    Id., p. 7.

  231. 231.

    Mwacalimba (2012), pp. 391–405.

  232. 232.

    Hampson (1997).

  233. 233.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  234. 234.

    Ibid.

  235. 235.

    GRZ (2006).

  236. 236.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  237. 237.

    Id.

  238. 238.

    CSO (2004).

  239. 239.

    DVLD (2009).

  240. 240.

    Munang’andu et al. (2012).

  241. 241.

    FSAI Scientific Committee (2003).

  242. 242.

    Mwacalimba et al. (2013).

  243. 243.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  244. 244.

    Mwacalimba and Green (2014).

  245. 245.

    Muma et al. (2014).

  246. 246.

    Ashoff (2005); Blouin (2007), pp. 169–173.

  247. 247.

    Stirling and Scoones (2009), http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art14/.

  248. 248.

    See Dora (2006).

  249. 249.

    This describes the processes through which health risks are understood and interpreted by laypeople. Allmark and Tod (2006).

  250. 250.

    Dowler et al. (2006).

  251. 251.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  252. 252.

    Colvin (2011), pp. 253–256.

  253. 253.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Outcomes Research, US Operations, Zoetis LLC, Parsippany, NJ, USA

    Kennedy Mwacalimba BVM, MSc, DLSHTM, PhD

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  1. Kennedy Mwacalimba BVM, MSc, DLSHTM, PhD
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Correspondence to Kennedy Mwacalimba BVM, MSc, DLSHTM, PhD .

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  1. Food Law International, LLP, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Gabriela Steier

  2. Food Law International, LLP, Washington, DC, USA

    Kiran K. Patel

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Mwacalimba, K. (2016). Disease Control, Public Health and Food Safety: Food Policy Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Steier, G., Patel, K. (eds) International Food Law and Policy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07542-6_42

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