Abstract
Environmental specimens such as faecal droppings are considered important for the detection of avian influenza viruses (AIV). In view of lower rates of AIV isolation from avian faecal droppings, characterization of droppings is imperative to elucidate contributing factors. However, there are no reports on morphological and biochemical characteristics of droppings. The objective of the present study was the characterization of droppings from different avian species and their impact on the AIV detection and isolation. A total of 373 droppings belonging to 61 avian species from 22 families of apparently healthy wild migratory, resident, domestic birds and poultry were studied during five winter migratory bird seasons between 2007 to 2012 and 2016–2017. The colour, morphology and size of the droppings varied from species-to-species. These data could be useful for the identification of avian species. Droppings from 67% of the avian species showed acidic pH (4.5–6.5); nine species showed neutral pH (7.0), and 11 species showed alkaline pH (7.5). The infectious titers of AIV in droppings with acidic pH were significantly lower (p < 0.05) than those of the droppings with neutral and alkaline pH. However, acidic pH did not hamper AIV detection by real-time RT-PCR. In order to avoid the impact of acidic pH, collecting fresh droppings into viral transport medium (pH 7.0–7.5) would help improve the rate of AIV isolation.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
See: Bird Droppings: The Importance of Daily Observation in Early Identification of Problems.
See: Sakas P.S. Evaluation of Bird Droppings-An Indicator of Health.
References
Ali, S. (1996). The book of Indian Birds (12th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bird Droppings: The Importance of Daily Observation in Early Identification of Problems. peteducation.com. Retrieved June 14, 2017 from http://www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?c=15+1829&aid=2973.
Chen, H. X., Shen, H. G., Li, X. L., Zhou, J. Y., Hou, Y. Q., Guo, J. Q., et al. (2006a). Seroprevalance and identification of influenza A virus infection from migratory wild waterfowl in China (2004–2005). Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series B, 53(4), 166–170.
Chen, H., Smith, G. J. D., Li, K. S., Wang, J., Fan, X. H., Rayner, J. M., et al. (2006b). Establishment of multiple sublineages of H5N1 influenza virus in Asia: Implications for pandemic control. Proceedings of the National academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(8), 2845–2850.
Cheung, P. P., Leung, Y. C., Chow, C. K., Ng, C. F., Tsang, C. L., Wu, Y. O., et al. (2009). Identifying the species-origin of faecal droppings used for avian influenza virus surveillance in wild-birds. Journal of Clinical Virology, 46(1), 90–93.
Das, A., Spackman, E., Pantin-Jackwood, M. J., & Suarez, D. L. (2009). Removal of real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) inhibitors associated with cloacal swab samples and tissues for improved diagnosis of Avian influenza virus by RT-PCR. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 21(6), 771–778.
Hansbro, P. M., Warner, S., Tracey, J. P., Arzey, K. E., Selleck, P., O’Riley, K., et al. (2010). Surveillance and analysis of avian influenza viruses. Australia. Emerging infectious diseases, 16(12), 1896.
Kale, S. D., Mishra, A. C., & Pawar, S. D. (2013). Suitability of specimen types for isolation of avian influenza viruses from poultry. Indian Journal of Virology, 24(3), 391–393.
Leung, Y. C., Zhang, L. J., Chow, C. K., Tsang, C. L., Ng, C. F., Wong, C. K., et al. (2007). Poultry drinking water used for avian influenza surveillance. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13(9), 1380.
Pande, S. A. (2003). Birds of Western Ghats, Kokan and Malabar (Including birds of Goa). Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Pannwitz, G., Wolf, C., & Harder, T. (2009). Active surveillance for avian influenza virus infection in wild birds by analysis of avian fecal samples from the environment. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 45(2), 512–518.
Pawar, S., Pande, S., Jamgaonkar, A., Koratkar, S., Pal, B., Raut, S., et al. (2009). Avian influenza surveillance in wild migratory, resident, domestic birds and in poultry in Maharashtra and Manipur, India, during avian migratory season 2006–2007. Current Science, 97, 550–554.
Reed, L. J., & Muench, H. (1938). A simple method of estimating fifty per cent endpoints. American Journal of Epidemiology, 27(3), 493–497.
Sakas, P.S. Evaluation of Bird Droppings-An Indicator of Health. Retrieved June 14, 2017 from www.nilesanimalhospital.com. http://nilesanimalhospital.com/files/2012/05/The-Dropping-_-An-Indicator-of-Health.pdf.
Stallknecht, D. E., Kearney, M. T., Shane, S. M., & Zwank, P. J. (1990). Effects of pH, temperature, and salinity on persistence of avian influenza viruses in water. Avian Diseases, 34, 412–418.
Stegmann, T., Booy, F. P., & Wilschut, J. (1987). Effects of low pH on influenza virus. Activation and inactivation of the membrane fusion capacity of the hemagglutinin. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 262(36), 17744–17749.
Suarez, D. L. (2000). Evolution of avian influenza viruses. Veterinary Microbiology, 74(1), 15–27.
Verhagen, J., van der Jeugd, H. P., Nolet, B., Slaterus, R., Kharitonov, S. P., de Vries, P. P., et al. (2015). Wild bird surveillance around outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N8) virus in the Netherlands, 2014, within the context of global flyways. Eurosurveillance, 20(12), 21–32.
Webster, R. G., Bean, W. J., Gorman, O. T., Chambers, T. M., & Kawaoka, Y. (1992). Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. Microbiological Reviews, 56(1), 152–179.
Whitworth, D., Newman, S.H., Mundkur, T., & Harris, P. Wild Birds and Avian Influenza: an introduction to applied field research and disease sampling techniques. FAO Animal Production and Health Manual, No. 5. Rome. FAO 2007. Retrieved June 14, 2017 from http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a1521e/a1521e00.htm.
WHO, CDC protocol for real-time RT-PCR for influenza A, 2009. Retrieved June 14, 2017 from http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/swineflu/realtimeptpcr/en/.
World Health Organization (WHO). WHO Manual on Animal influenza diagnosis and surveillance (2002). Retrieved June 14, 2017 from http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/influenza/whocdscsrncs20025rev.pdf.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. DT Mourya, Director, NIV, Pune for support to this study. The assistance in the laboratory and field work was provided by SK Waghmare and JPN Babu; statistical analysis by AM Walimbe. Thanks are due to researchers from Ela Foundation, Pune for assistance in field work. Financial support was provided by the Indian Council of Medical Research, Government of India, New Delhi.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pawar, S.D., Pande, S.A., Tare, D.S. et al. Morphological and Biochemical Characteristics of Avian Faecal Droppings and Their Impact on Survival of Avian Influenza Virus. Food Environ Virol 10, 99–106 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12560-017-9323-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12560-017-9323-3