Abstract
A systems reliability analysis is developed that includes 18 layers of security that might disrupt a terrorist organisation undeterred and intent on downing an airliner with a passenger-borne bomb. Overall, they reduce the risk that such an attack would be successful by 93%. The odds that a lone wolf will be successful in such an attack are considerably lower. This level of risk reduction is very robust: security remains high even when the disruption rates that make it up are varied considerably. The same model is used to explore the risk reduction of aviation security measures in other western countries and in Israel. The benefit-to-cost ratio is then calculated for most of the security measures. It considers the costs and the risk reduction of the layer, the losses from a successful terrorist attack, and the attack probability. It is found that the Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) and police, PreCheck, Visible Intermodal Protection Response (VIPR) teams, and canines pass a cost-benefit assessment. However, it finds that air marshals and behavior detection officers, at a combined cost of nearly $1.3 billion per year, fail to be cost-effective. Accordingly, there are likely to be spending reductions that could be made with little or no consequent reduction in security.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Jackson and LaTourette (2015), Jackson et al. (2012), Lee and Jacobson (2011), McLay et al. (2010), Sewell et al. (2013), Jacobson et al. (2006), Morral et al. (2012), Martonosi and Barnett (2006), von Winterfeldt and O’Sullivan (2006), Willis and LaTourette (2008), and Poole (2015). For a full review of probabilistic terrorism risk assessment see Stewart and Mueller (2013a).
References
Aaronson T (2013) The terror factory. Ig Publishing, Brooklyn
Balakrishnan A (2016) Would you pay more for extra airport security? CNBC, March 24
Baum P (2016) Violence in the skies: a history of aircraft hijacking and bombing. Summerdale Publishers, Chichester
Congress (2015) House Report 114-125, Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2016, 114th Congress, Washington, DC, July 21
Congress (2016) Senate Report 114-264, Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Bill, 2017, 114th Congress, Washington, DC, May 26
DHS (2016) Budget-in-brief: fiscal year 2016. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC
Elias B (2009) Airport passenger screening: background and considerations for congress. Congressional research service, Washington, DC April 23
Elias B (2010) Airport and aviation security. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Elias B, Petermann DR, Frittelli J (2016) Transportation security: issues for the 114th congress. Congressional research service, Washington DC, May 9
Fletcher KC (2011), Aviation security: case for risk-based passenger screening. Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, California
GAO (2010) Aviation security: efforts to validate TSA’s screening behavior detection program underway, but opportunities exist to strengthen validation and address operational challenges. Report GAO-10-763, United States Government Accountability Office, Washington DC, May
GAO (2013) Aviation security: TSA should limit future funding for behavior detection activities. Report GAO-14-159, United States Government Accountability Office, Washington DC, November
Grant M, Stewart MG (2012) A systems model for probabilistic risk assessment of improvised explosive device attack. International Journal of Intelligent Defence Support Systems 5(1):75–93
Grant M, Stewart MG (2015) Probabilistic risk assessment for improvised explosive device attacks causing significant building damage. J Perform Constr Facil 29(5):B4014009
Grant M, Stewart MG (2018) Postal IEDs and risk assessment of work health and safety considerations for postal workers. International Journal of Risk Assessment and Management (in press)
House (2011) TSA ignores more cost-effective screening model. United States house of representatives, committee on transportation and infrastructure, oversight and investigations staff report, June 3
HSE (2013) HSE principles for Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) in support of ALARP decisions, Health & Safety Executive, United Kingdom, accessed at http://www.hse.gov.uk/risk/theory/alarpcba.htm on 16 Mar 2013
Jackson BA, LaTourette T (2015) Assessing the effectiveness of layered security for protecting the aviation system against adaptive adversaries. Journal of Air Transport Management 35(March):26–33
Jackson BA, Chan EW, LaTourrette T (2012) Assessing the security benefits of a trusted traveler program in the presence of attempted attacker exploitation and compromise. J Transp Secur 5:1–34
Jacobson SH, Karnani T, Kobza JE, Ritchie L (2006) A cost-benefit analysis of alternative device configurations for aviation checked baggage security screening. Risk Anal 26(2):297–310
Jenkins BM (2011) Stray dogs and virtual armies: radicalization and recruitment to jihadist terrorism in the United States since 9/11. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica
Kenney M (2010) ‘Dumb’ yet deadly: local knowledge and poor tradecraft among Islamist militants in Britain and Spain. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 33(10):911–932
Kohn D (2002) The safest airline: a security example set by Israel’s El Al. 60 minutes, CBS, January 15
Lee AJ, Jacobson SH (2011) The impact of aviation checkpoint queues on optimizing security screening effectiveness. Reliab Eng Syst Saf 96(8):900–911
Martonosi SE, Barnett A (2006) How effective is security screening of airline passengers? Interfaces 36(6):545–552
McLay LA, Lee AJ, Jacobson SH (2010) Risk-based policies for airport security checkpoint screening. Transp Sci 44(3):333–349
Morral AR, Price CC, Oritz DS, Wilson B, LaTourrette T, Mobley BW, McKay S, Willis HH (2012) Modeling terrorism risk to the air transportation system. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica
Mueller J (2018) Terrorism since 9/11: the American cases. Mershon Center, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH. http://politicalscience.osu.edu/faculty/jmueller/SINCE.pdf
Mueller J, Stewart MG (2011) Terror, security, and money: balancing the risks, benefits, and costs of homeland security. Oxford University Press, New York
Mueller J, Stewart MG (2012) The terrorism delusion: America’s overwrought response to September 11. Int Secur 37(1):81–110
Mueller J, Stewart MG (2014) Evaluating counterterrorism spending. J Econ Perspect 28(3):237–248
Mueller J, Stewart MG (2016a) Chasing ghosts: the policing of terrorism. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Mueller J, Stewart MG (2016b) Misoverestimating ISIS: comparisons with Al-Qaeda. Perspectives on Terrorism 10(4):32–41
Poole RW (2015) Fresh thinking on aviation security. Journal of Air Transport Management 48(September):65–67
Price JC, Forrest JS (2013) Practical aviation security: predicting and preventing future threats. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
Robinson W (2016) Just one Air Marshal a week deals with a disruptive passenger on a plane yet taxpayers still shell out $800 MILLION a year. Daily Mail, March 14
Sewell EC, Lee AJ, Jacobson SH (2013) Optimal allocation of aviation security screening devices. J Transp Secur 6:103–116
Shobe A (2003) Law enforcement officers flying armed: past, present, and future. Institute for Criminal Justice Education, September 30
Stewart MG, Mueller J (2008) A risk and cost-benefit assessment of U.S. aviation security measures. Journal of Transportation Security 1(3):143–159
Stewart MG, Mueller J (2011) Cost-benefit analysis of advanced imaging technology fully body scanners for airline passenger security screening. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management 8(1):Article 30
Stewart MG, Mueller J (2013a) Terrorism risks and cost-benefit analysis of aviation security. Risk Anal 33(5):893–908
Stewart MG, Mueller J (2013b) Aviation security, risk assessment, and risk aversion for public Decisionmaking. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 32(3):615–633
Stewart MG, Mueller J (2014a) Risk and cost-benefit analysis of police counter-terrorism operations at Australian airports. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism 9(2):98–116
Stewart MG, Mueller J (2014b) Cost-benefit analysis of airport security: are airports too safe? Journal of Air Transport Management 35(March):19–28
Stewart MG, Mueller J (2017) Risk and economic assessment of expedited passenger screening and TSA PreCheck. J Transp Secur 10(1):1–22
Stewart MG, Mueller J (2018) Are we safe enough? Measuring and assessing aviation security. Elsevier, New York
Stewart MG, Ellingwood BR, Mueller J (2011) Homeland security: a case study in risk aversion for public decision-making. International Journal of Risk Assessment and Management 15(5/6):367–386
TSA (2014) Written testimony of TSA administrator John Pistole for a senate committee on commerce, science, and transportation hearing titled “TSA oversight: confronting America’s transportation security challenges”. April 30
von Winterfeldt D, O’Sullivan TM (2006) Should we protect commercial airplanes against surface-to-air missile attacks by terrorists? Decis Anal 3(2):63–75
Willis HH, LaTourette T (2008) Using probabilistic terrorism risk-modeling for regulatory benefit-cost analysis: application to the western hemisphere travel initiative in the land environment. Risk Anal 28:325–339
Winter J, Currier C (2015) TSA’s secret behavior checklist to spot terrorists. www.firstlook.org/theintercept, March 27
Wynne M (2002), Flying while armed - letting cops board planes with their sidearms will bolster homeland security. POLICE magazine, September 1
Acknowledgements
The support of the Australian Research Council grant DP160100855 is acknowledged.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stewart, M.G., Mueller, J. Risk and economic assessment of U.S. aviation security for passenger-borne bomb attacks. J Transp Secur 11, 117–136 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12198-018-0196-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12198-018-0196-y