Abstract
This paper discusses citizenship in Finnish religious education (RE) in relation to human security. It traces the characteristics of human security that connect citizenship, religion, and education in Finnish policy documents. The article focuses on basic education (grades 7–9). Its data were analyzed employing qualitative content analysis (QCA). The findings indicate that citizenship in Finnish RE entails personal security concerns dealing with psychological and human rights issues. These are found to be essentially human security as conceptualized by the United Nations (UN). However, Finnish policy documents sparingly utilize human security in explicit terms. Finland rather emphasizes the practical applications of human security. Incorporation of explicit global citizen and human rights issues into RE in the new Finnish curriculum seems to project critical global citizenship. This is found to promote human security. Following Finland’s bid for practical application of human security, we recommend (but cautiously) that human security be explicitly integrated into the Finnish RE curriculum.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
In this article, RE means the study of religion as a core subject in public schools.
The OSCE was formerly known as the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe and it effectively began in 1975 following the Helsinki Final Act. It is now the world’s largest regional security organization (OSCE 2007, 21–22).
REDCo Means: “Religion in Education: A contribution to Dialogue or a factor of Conflict in transforming societies of European countries” (Weisse 2007).
See below for the reason for employing the UN policy about human security in the “Focus and Methodology” section.
The entire Finnish basic education ranges from grades 1–9 (Finnish National Board of Education – FNBE 2014, 27). It is compulsory, and it usually begins when the child turns seven (Section 25 of the Basic Education Act 628/1998; Amendments up to 1136/2010). (See: http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1998/en19980628.pdf. Accessed 31 December 2017.)
The Finnish government usually employs the institution of various committees to bring education under its strict control. They help in planning government actions and in drafting government policies affecting the whole education sector. The proposals of these committees are more or less official curricula. So, the committees are vital instruments of educational policy as practiced by the state (Simola 2000, 2114–2115). As becomes apparent later in this study, the reports of the committees across various sectors/ministries are usually considered and harmonized in the making of curriculum for basic (compulsory) education (cf. ibid.).
The constructivist perspective belongs to discourse analysis in which linguistic categories within and outside the materials under examination shape the interpretation of the social reality (Schreier 2012, 47). Implicit realist assumption, by contrast, is of QCA and it mainly concerns the reality that can be found in the materials under investigation. Generally, the realist assumption would not consider the relationship between the linguistic categories of the materials under analysis and the social reality (ibid.).
Note that the four freedoms ideas are articulated in the message of Roosevelt to the members of the 77th Congress of the US in 1941. See: https://fdrlibrary.org/documents/356632/390886/readingcopy.pdf/42234a77-8127-4015-95af-bcf831db311d. Accessed 5 May 2016.
See more details about this in the latter part of this conceptual framework.
Human security has many conflicting definitions, as it is multifaceted (Tadjbakhsh and Chenoy 2007).
There are other different but interwoven forms of human security (e.g., socio-economic security, environmental security, political security etc.). However, they all revolved around personal security (Gasper 2005).
See Gearon’s critiques of this move below.
C.A.S.E. is a network of junior and senior researchers interested in critical security studies (C.A.S.E. 2006).
It remains debatable as to whether the list of security sectors should be expanded to include more issues like religion and gender (Albert and Buzan 2011).
It remains debateable as to whether security sectors are generally ontological or should rather be taken as analytical devices (ibid.).
He seems to understand security in RE in military terms. He notes: “The word security is now associated most commonly with the protection of national and international interests, often with militaristic overtones. It is in this sense in which ‘securitization’ is used” (Gearon 2012a, 216). His view that liberal democracies have become intolerant by “bringing military and security concerns into the [RE] classroom” (Gearon 2012a, 231) seems to lend credence to this.
Jackson was a leading researcher in the REDCo project. He also contributed to the recommendations of the CoE and the Toledo Guiding Principles (Jackson 2015).
This is a precursor of what is now called human security (cf. Jackson 2015, 354).
Finland Minister of the Interior in 2012
See Statistics Finland: http://www.stat.fi/index_en.html. Accessed 15 July 2017
See: http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/1998/en19980628.pdf. Accessed 21 November 2015
This development is significant, as human rights are not explicit in the previous RE curriculum (FNBE 2004).
References
Albert M, Buzan B (2011) Securitization, sectors and functional differentiation. Security Dialogue 42:413–425. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010611418710
Berg BL (2009) Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Allyn & Bacon, Boston
Bryman A (2004) Social research methods. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Buzan B, Hansen L (2009) The evolution of international security studies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Buzan B, Wæver O, de Wilder J (1998) Security: A new framework. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder
C.A.S.E. C (2006) Critical approaches to security in Europe: A networked manifesto. Security Dialogue 37:443–487. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010606073085
Cavelty MD, Mauer V (2012) Introduction. In: Cavelty MD, Mauer V (eds) The Routledge handbook of security studies. Routledge, New York, pp 1–6
Commission on Human Security (2003) Human security now. Commission on Human Security, New York
Davies L (2009) Educating against extremism: Towards a critical politicisation of young people. International Review of Education 55:183–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-008-9126-8
Davies L (2014) Unsafe gods: Security, secularism and schooling. Institute of Education Press, London
Davies L (2016) Security, extremism and education: Safeguarding or surveillance? British Journal of Educational Studies 64:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2015.1107022
de Forest J (2004) The human rights handbook: A global perspective for education by Liam Gearon. Harvard Educational Review 74:340–346
FNBE (2004) National Core Curriculum for Basic Education 2004: National Core Curriculum for Basic Education Intended for Pupils in Compulsory Education. (Publication Reg. No 1/011/2004). FNBE, Helsinki
FNBE (2014) National Core Curriculum for Basic Education 2014. (Publications 2016: 5). FNBE, Helsinki
Gasper D (2005) Securing humanity: Situating ‘Human Security’ as concept and discourse. Journal of Human Development 6:221–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880500120558
Gearon L (2002) Human rights and religious education: Some postcolonial perspectives. British Journal of Religious Education 24:140–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141620020240207
Gearon L (2003) The human rights handbook: A global perspective for education. Trentham, Oakhill
Gearon L (2012a) The securitization of religion in education. In: Van Der Zee T, Lovat T (eds) New Perspectives on Religious and Spiritual Education. Waxmann, Münster, pp 215–233
Gearon L (2012b) European religious education and European civil religion. British Journal of Educational Studies 60:151–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2012.671929
Gearon L (2013) The counter terrorist classroom: Religion, education, and security. Religious Education 108:129–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344087.2013.767660
Gearon L (2014) The counter terrorist classroom: Countering extremism through (religious) education? In: Cere D, Thorp T (eds) Religion and conflict: Responding to the challenges. Tony Blair Faith Foundation, London, pp 64–69. https://jliflc.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Global-Perspective-Volume-01.pdf. Accessed 1 November 2017
Gearon L (2015) Education, security and intelligence studies. British Journal of Educational Studies 63:263–279
Gearon L (2017) Secularisation and the securitisation of the sacred a response to Lewin’s framing of the Gearon–Jackson debate. British Journal of Educational Studies 65: 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2017.1363375
Ghosh R, Manuel A, Chan WYA, Dilimulati M, Babaei M (2016) Education and security: A global literature review on the role of education in countering violent religious extremism. Tony Blair Institute for Global Change, London. https://institute.global/sites/default/files/inline-files/IGC_Education%20and%20Security.pdf. Accessed 1 November 2017.
Hoover DR (2004) Introduction: Religion gets real. In: Seiple RA, Hoover DR (eds) Religion and security: The new nexus in international relations. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, pp 1–7
Jackson R (2015) The politicisation and securitisation of religious education? A rejoinder. British Journal of Educational Studies 63:345–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2015.1069257
Jackson R (2016) Inclusive study of religions and world views in schools: Signposts from the Council of Europe. Social Inclusion 4:14–25. https://doi.org/10.17645/si.v4i2.493
Jackson R (2017) ‘Who’s afraid of secularisation?’ A response to David Lewin. British Journal of Educational Studies 65:463–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2017.1358804
Laustsen CB, Wæver O (2000) In defence of religion: Sacred referent objects for securitization. Millennium: Journal of International Studies 29:705–739. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298000290031601
Lewin D (2017) Who’s afraid of secularisation? Reframing the debate between Gearon and Jackson. British Journal of Educational Studies 65:445–461. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2017.1305182
Lombardi CB, Wellman JK Jr (2012) Introduction: Religion and human security: An understudied relationship. In: Wellman JK Jr, Lombardi CB (eds) Religion and human security: A global perspective. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 1–17
MFA (1995) Security in a changing world: Guidelines for Finland’s security policy - report by the Council of State to the parliament 6 June 1995. (Report No. 8/1995).
MFA (2004) Government report to parliament on the human rights policy of Finland 2004. (Report No. 5/2004). http://formin.finland.fi/public/default.aspx?contentid=324178&nodeid=49540&contentlan=2&culture=en-US . Accessed 8 October 2017
MFA (2009) Government report to parliament on the human rights policy of Finland 2009. (Report No. 14/2009). http://formin.finland.fi/public/default.aspx?contentid=324113&contentlan=2&culture=en-US . Accessed 17 July 2017
MFA (2014) Government of Finland human rights report 2014. http://formin.finland.fi/public/default.aspx?contentid=324091&nodeid=49540&contentlan=2&culture=en-US . Accessed 8 June 2017
MoI (2008) Safety first: Internal security programme. (Publication No. 25/2008). http://www.hare.vn.fi/Uploads/14424/403391/JULKAISU_20090721073036_403391.pdf. Accessed 16 May 2017
MoI (2012) Towards a cohesive society: Action plan to prevent violent extremism. (Publication No. 33/2012). http://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/79460/sm_332012.pdf. Accessed 21 June 2017
MoI (2013) Government resolution on the future of migration 2020 strategy. http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CERD/Shared%20Documents/FIN/INT_CERD_ADR_FIN_22740_E.pdf. Accessed 21 June 2017
OSCE (2007) Toledo guiding principles on teaching about religions and beliefs in public schools. OSCE/ODIHR, Warsaw. http://www.osce.org/odihr/29154?download=true. Accessed 17 January 2017
Piattoeva N (2009) Citizenship and nationality in changing Europe: A comparative study of the aims of citizenship education in Russian and Finnish national education policy texts. Journal of Curriculum Studies 41:723–744. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220270902845182
PMO (2013) Finnish security and defence policy 2012: Government report. (Report No. 1/2013). http://vnk.fi/julkaisu?pubid=2205. Accessed 15 August 2017
Poulter S (2013) Kansalaisena maallistuneessa maailmassa. Koulun uskonnonopetuksen yhteiskunnallisen tehtävän tarkastelua. [Citizenship in a secular age. The civic task of religious education]. Dissertation, University of Tampere
Poulter S (2017) From citizenship of God’s kingdom to liberal individualism? A critical historical analysis of Finnish religious education. British Journal of Religious Education 39:187–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2015.1110113
Räsänen P (2012) To the reader. In Towards a cohesive society: Action plan to prevent violent extremism. MoI, Helsinki, p 4
Schreier M (2012) Qualitative content analysis in practice. Sage, Los Angeles.
Security and Defence Committee (2006) The strategy for securing the functions vital to society. (Government Resolution 23.11.2006). http://www.defmin.fi/files/858/06_12_12_YETTS__in_english.pdf. Accessed 12 March 2017
Seiple C, Hoover DR, Otis P (2013) Introduction. In: Seiple C, Hoover DR, Otis P (eds) The Routledge handbook of religion and security. Routledge, London, pp 1–8
Simola H (2000) Firmly bolted into the air: Wishful rationalism as a discursive basis for educational reforms. In: Ball SJ (ed) Sociology of education: Major themes. (Vol. 4). London, Routledge, pp 2112–2138
Tadjbakhsh S, Chenoy AM (2007) Human security: concepts and implications. Routledge, London
Talib M (2006) Why is it so hard to encounter diversity? In: Talib M (ed) Diversity: A challenge for educators. Finnish Educational Research Association, Turku, pp 139–156
Torney-Purta J (2002) The school’s role in developing civic engagement: A study of adolescents in twenty-eight countries. Applied Developmental Science 6:203–212. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532480XADS0604_7
Ubani M (2013) Threats and solutions: Multiculturalism, religion and educational policy. Intercultural Education 24:195–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2013.797701
Ubani M, Tirri K (2006) How do Finnish pre-adolescents perceive religion and spirituality? International Journal of Children’s Spirituality 11:357–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/13644360601014106
UN (2010) Report of the special rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, Heiner Bielefeldt. Human Rights Council
UNDP (1994) Human development report 1994. Oxford University Press, New York
UNDP (2009) Arab human development report 2009: Challenges to human security in Arab countries. UNDP, New York
Weisse W (2007) The European research project on religion and education ‘REDCo’: An introduction. In: Jackson R, Miedema S, Weisse W, Williaime J (eds) Religion and education in Europe: Developments, contexts and debates. Waxmann, New York, pp 9–25
Wellman JK Jr (2012) The dance of desire in religion and human security. In: Wellman JK Jr, Lombardi CB (eds) Religion and human security: A global perspective. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 18–29
Acknowledgments
We thank our highly valued anonymous reviewers, the Editor-in-Chief of this journal and Dr. Robert Whiting for their efforts and comments on this paper. The original research ideas relating to the relationship between security and citizenship in Finnish RE that eventually brought about this article were presented by the first and corresponding author of this article in “Changing Subjects, Changing Pedagogies: Diversities in School and Education” conference held in Helsinki (Finland) on the May 27–29, 2015 and in “Shifting Borders in Religious Education” conference held in Tartu (Estonia) on the June 15–18, 2015. Appreciations to the two conference participants whose comments (on the presentations) eventually became the initial feedback on this study. We also thank the relevant personnel in the Language Services of the University of Helsinki for their efforts. This paper would not have attained this status without the resourcefulness of all these persons.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Adebayo, G.O., Mansikka, JE. Human Security and Citizenship in Finnish Religious Education: Rethinking Security Within the Human Rights Horizon. Hum Rights Rev 19, 447–469 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12142-018-0502-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12142-018-0502-x