Abstract
The purpose of this study is to explore how lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities perceive the police. Historically, relationships between LGBT communities and the police have been strained due to a legacy of discriminatory actions, although some police agencies have more recently taken steps to build relationships with LGBT communities. A survey was administered to a sample of LGBT and heterosexual respondents (n = 787) to measure perceptions regarding police fairness, policing qualities, policing outcomes, and police interactions with LGBT communities. Across a number of measures and scales, the perceptions of LGBT participants were significantly more negative than those of other participants, including when the variables of race, income, location type (e.g., rural, small town, suburban, urban), prior service as a police officer, and quality of prior interactions with the police, are controlled in multivariate modeling. Implications for police training and policy are discussed, as well as theoretical contexts that frame the results.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Use of the terminology “LGBT communities” is not intended to imply that there is a single community comprised of LGBT persons, nor is it intended to imply that all LGBT persons are part of a defined or organized community. Indeed, some research has found a decline in the traditional notion of community for the LGBT population, with reduced importance of gathering places, events, and activism; this was concomitant with greater steps toward LGBT rights and equality, and the increased use of online media for developing social networks (e.g., Rosser, West, & Weinmeyer, 2008). Accordingly, “LGBT communities” terminology is used to signify a shared identity as related to sexual orientation, consistent with the American Psychological Association’s (2010) reference “to identities and to the culture and communities that have developed among” (p. 74; emphasis added) sexual minorities. This nomenclature also mirrors that utilized by Peterson and Panfil (2014a) in the Handbook of LGBT Communities, Crime, and Justice, in which Colvin (2014) notes that “relations between lesbian and gay communities and the police have historically been fraught with contention…due to the uneven and inequitable policing extended to these communities” (p. 189). Reference to “LGBT communities,” rather than individuals who identify as LGBT, acknowledges and reifies the socio-political dynamics that explain changing relationships between the police and sexual minorities, while not presuming that there is a single or comprehensive community identifier.
References
Adamczyk, A., Boyd, K. A., & Hayes, B. E. (2016). Place matters: Contextualizing the roles of religion and race for understanding Americans’ attitudes about homosexuality. Social Science Research, 57, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.02.001
Addington, L. A. (2008). Current issues in victimization research and the NCVS’s ability to study them. Paper presented at the Bureau of Justice Statistics Data User’s Workshop, Washington, DC. Retrieved from https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/Addington.pdf
Agee, C. (2006). Gayola: Police professionalization and the politics of San Francisco’s gay bars, 1950-1968. Journal of the History of Sexuality, 15, 462–489.
Altemeyer, B. (1996). The authoritarian specter. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Arrigo, B. A. (1995). The peripheral core of law and criminology: On postmodern social theory and conceptual integration. Justice Quarterly, 12, 447–472.
Bailey, R. W. (1999). Gay politics, urban politics: Identity and economics in the urban setting. New York: Columbia University Press.
Belkin, A., & McNichol, J. (2002). Pink and blue: Outcomes associated with the integration of open gay and lesbian personnel in the San Diego police department. Police Quarterly, 5, 63–95.
Boyce, G., & Davids, C. (2009). Conflict of interest in policing and the public sector. Public Management Review, 11, 601–640. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719030902798255
Brown, B., & Benedict, W. R. (2002). Perceptions of the police: Past findings, methodological issues, conceptual issues and policy implications. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 25, 543–580. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510210437032
Brunson, R. K. (2007). “Police don’t like black people”: African-American young men’s accumulated police experiences. Criminology & Public Policy, 6, 71–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00423.x
Burke, T., Jordan, M., & Owen, S. (2002). A cross-national comparison of gay & lesbian domestic violence. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 18, 231–257.
Burke, T. W., Owen, S. S., & Few-Demo, A. (2015). Law enforcement and transgender communities. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. Retrieved from https://leb.fbi.gov/2015/june/law-enforcement-and-transgender-communities
Carroll, L., & Gonzalez, M. L. (2014). Out of place: Racial stereotypes and the ecology of frisks and searches following traffic stops. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 51, 559–584. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427814523788
Civilian Complaint Review Board (2016). Pride, prejudice, and policing: An evaluation of LGBTQ-related complaints from January 2010 through December 2015. New York: New York City Civilian Complaint Review Board. Retrieved from https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/ccrb/downloads/pdf/policy_pdf/issue_based/20160630_lgbtq-report.pdf
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Colvin, R. (2014). Policing the lesbian and gay community: The perceptions of lesbian and gay police officers. In D. Peterson & V. R. Panfil (Eds.), Handbook of LGBT communities, crime, and justice (pp. 183–206). New York: Springer.
Crenshaw, K. (1993). Demarginalizing the interaction of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and anti-racist politics. In D. Weisberg (Ed.), Feminist legal theory: Foundations (pp. 383–411). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
D’Emilio, J. (1983). Sexual politics, sexual communities (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Dwyer, A. (2011). ‘It’s not like we’re going to jump them’: How transgressing heteronormativity shapes police interactions with LGBT young people. Young Justice, 11, 203–220. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473225411420526
Dwyer, A. (2015). Teaching young queers a lesson: How police teach lessons about non-heteronormativity in public spaces. Sexuality and Culture, 19, 493–512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-015-9273-6
Eskridge, W. N. (2008). Dishonorable passions: Sodomy laws in America 1861–2003. New York: Viking.
Faiman-Silva, S. L. (2004). The courage to connect: Sexuality, citizenship, and community in Provincetown. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Few-Demo, A. L. (2014). Intersectionality as the “new” critical approach in feminist family studies: Evolving racial/ethnic feminisms and critical race theories. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 6, 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12039
Finneran, C., & Stephenson, R. (2013). Gay and bisexual men’s perceptions of police helpfulness in response to male-male intimate partner violence. The Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, 14, 354–362. https://doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2013.3.15639
Gerstenfeld, P. B. (2004). Hate crimes: Causes, controls, and controversies. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Gillespie, W. (2008). Thirty-five years after stonewall: An exploratory study of satisfaction with police among gay, lesbian, and bisexual persons at the 34th annual Atlanta pride festival. Journal of Homosexuality, 55, 619–647. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918360802421759
Glick, S. N., Cleary, S. D., & Golden, M. R. (2015). Brief report; Increasing acceptance of homosexuality in the United States across racial and ethnic subgroups. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 70, 319–322. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000000740
Hassel, K. D., & Brandl, S. G. (2009). An examination of the workplace experiences of police patrol officers: The role of race, sex, and sexual orientation. Police Quarterly, 12, 408–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611109348473
Hawdon, J. (2008). Legitimacy, trust, social capital, and policing styles: A theoretical statement. Police Quarterly, 11, 182–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611107311852
Human Rights Campaign (n.d.). Glossary of terms. Retrieved from http://www.hrc.org/resources/glossary-of-terms
Hyland, S., Langton, L., & Davis, E. (2015). Police use of nonfatal force, 2002–11. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/punf0211.pdf
Israel, T., Bettergarcia, J. N., Delucio, K., Avellar, T. R., Harkness, A., & Goodman, J. A. (2017). Reactions of law enforcement to LGBTQ diversity training. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 28, 197–226. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21281
Keane, J., & Bell, P. (2013). Confidence in the police: Balancing public image with community safety - A comparative review of the literature. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 41, 233–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2013.06.003
Kelling, G. L., & Moore, M. H. (1988). The evolving strategy of policing. Perspectives on Policing (No. 4). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.policefoundation.org/publication/perspectives-on-policing-the-evolving-strategy-of-policing/
Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003).
Leinen, S. (1993). Gay cops. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Long, M. A., Cross, J. E., Shelley, T. O., & Ivkovic, S. K. (2013). The normative order of reporting police misconduct: Examining the roles of offense seriousness, legitimacy, and fairness. Social Psychology Quarterly, 76, 242–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272513493094
Lurigio, A. J., Greenleaf, R. G., & Flexon, J. L. (2009). The effects of race on relationships with police: A survey of African American and Latino youths in Chicago. Western Criminology Review, 10, 29–41.
Lvovsky, A. (2015). Queer expertise: Urban policing and the construction of public knowledge about homosexuality, 1920–1970 (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard university). Retrieved from http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:17463142
Lyons Jr., P. M., DeValve, M. J., & Garner, R. L. (2008). Texas police chiefs’ attitudes toward gay and lesbian police officers. Police Quarterly, 11, 102–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611107302655
Lytle, D. (2010). Neighborhood racial context and perceptions of police-based discrimination among black youth [book review]. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 33, 208–210. https://doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm.2010.18133aae.001
Mallory, C., Hasenbush, A., & Sears, B. (2015). Discrimination and harassment by law enforcement officers in the LGBT community. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute. Retrieved from https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/LGBT-Discrimination-and-Harassment-in-Law-Enforcement-March-2015.pdf
Mastrofski, S. (2017). The receptivity of the police to community-oriented reforms. ACJS Today, XLII(3), 107–117.
Mazerolle, L., Antrobus, E., Bennett, S., & Tyler, T. R. (2013). Shaping citizen perceptions of police legitimacy: A randomized field trial of procedural justice. Criminology, 51, 33–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00289.x
Meares, T. L., & Neyroud, P. (2015). Rightful policing. New Perspectives in Policing. Harvard Kennedy school program in criminal justice policy and management and National Institute of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/248411.pdf
Messinger, A. M. (2017). LGBTQ intimate partner violence: Lessons for policy, practice, and research. Oakland: University of California Press.
Miles-Johnson, T. (2013). Confidence and trust in police: How sexual identity difference shapes perceptions of police. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 25, 685–702.
Miles-Johnson, T. (2015). “They don’t identify with us”: Perceptions of police by Australian transgender people. International Journal of Transgenderism, 16, 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2015.1080647
Morrow, W. J., White, M. D., & Fradella, H. F. (2017). After the stop: Exploring the racial/ethnic disparities in police use of force during Terry stops. Police Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611117708791.
Murphy, K., Tyler, T. R., & Curtis, A. (2009). Nurturing regulatory compliance: Is procedural justice effective when people question the legitimacy of the law? Regulation & Governance, 3, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5991.2009.01043.x
Nadal, K. L., & Davidoff, K. C. (2015). Perceptions of police scale (POPS): Measuring attitudes towards law enforcement and beliefs about police bias. Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Science, 3, 1–9. 10.15640/jpbs.v3n2a1
Nadal, K. L., Quintanilla, A., Goswick, A., & Sriken, J. (2015). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people’s perceptions of the criminal justice system: Implications for social services. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 27, 457–481. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2015.1085116
Nofziger, S., & Williams, L. S. (2005). Perceptions of police and safety in a small town. Police Quarterly, 8, 248–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611103258959
Peterson, D., & Panfil, V. R. (2014a). Handbook of LGBT communities, crime, and justice. New York: Springer.
Peterson, D., & Panfil, V. R. (2014b). Introduction: Reducing the invisibility of sexual and gender identities in criminology and criminal justice. In D. Peterson & V. R. Panfil (Eds.), Handbook of LGBT communities, crime, and justice (pp. 3–14). New York: Springer.
Radelet, L. A., & Carter, D. L. (1994). The police and the community (5th ed.). New York: Macmillan College Publishing Company.
Rawls, J. (2001). Justice as fairness: A restatement. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Riggle, E. D. B., Rostosky, S. S., & Reedy, C. S. (2005). Online surveys for BGLT research: Issues and techniques. Journal of Homosexuality, 49(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v49n02_01
Rodriguez, E. A., McGloin, J. M., & Lynch, J. P. (2016). Understanding differences in public perceptions of the police. Poster presented at the BSOS summer research initiative, College Park. Retrieved from https://bsos.umd.edu/sites/bsos.umd.edu/files/rodriguez_edwin_final2.pdf
Rosser, B. R. S., West, W., & Weinmeyer, R. (2008). Are gay communities dying or just in transition? Results from an international consultation examining structural change in gay communities. AIDS Care, 20, 588–595. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120701867156
Serpe, C. R., & Nadal, K. L. (2017). Perceptions of police: Experiences in the trans* community. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 29, 280–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2017.1319777
Shelden, R. G. (2001). Controlling the dangerous classes: A critical introduction to the history of criminal justice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Solis, C., Portillos, E. L., & Brunson, R. K. (2009). Latino youths’ experiences with and perceptions of involuntary police encounters. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 623, 39–51.
Sparrow, M. K. (2015). Measuring performance in a modern police organization. New Perspectives in Policing. Harvard Kennedy school program in criminal justice policy and management and National Institute of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/248476.pdf
Spierenburg, P. C. (1984). The spectacle of suffering. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Stewart, E. A., Baumer, E. P., Brunson, R. K., & Simons, R. L. (2009). Neighborhood racial context and perceptions of police-based racial discrimination among black youth. Criminology, 47, 847–887.
Testimony of Chair Maya Wiley and Executive Director Mina Q. Malik of the Civilian Complaint Review Board before the Public Safety Committee of the New York City Council. (2016). Retrieved from https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/ccrb/downloads/pdf/about_pdf/news/speeches-and-testimonies/testimony/20161118_public-safety-testimony.pdf
Tyler, T. R. (2011). Trust and legitimacy: Policing in the USA and Europe. European Journal of Criminology, 8, 254–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370811411462
U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.) Quickfacts: United States [Population data estimates of July 1, 2016]. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045216
Voigt, R., Camp, N., Prabhakaran, V., Hamilton, W., Hetey, R., Griffiths, C., Jurgens, D., Jurafsky, D., & Eberhardt, J. (2017). Language from police body camera footage shows racial disparities in officer respect. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS). doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1702413114. Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2017/05/30/1702413114
Waddington, T. (2010). Policing with trust and confidence. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 4, 197–198. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paq032
Walker, S. (1997). Complaints against the police: A focus group study of citizen perceptions, goals, and expectations. Criminal Justice Review, 22, 207–226.
Weitzer, R. J., & Tuch, S. A. (2006). Race and policing in America: Conflict and reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
White, M. D., & Fradella, H. F. (2016). Stop and frisk: The use and abuse of a controversial policing tactic. New York: NYU Press.
Williams, H., & Murphy, P. V. (1990). The evolving strategy of police: A minority view. Perspectives on Policing (No. 13). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/121019.pdf
Williams, M. L., & Robinson, A. L. (2004). Problems and prospects with policing the lesbian, gay and bisexual community in Wales. Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy, 14, 213–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/1043946042000241811
Wolff, K. B., & Cokely, C. L. (2007). “To protect and to serve?”: An exploration of police conduct in relation to the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender community. Sexuality and Culture, 11, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-007-9000-z
Funding
No funding was utilized in this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the appropriate institutional review boards and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Owen, S.S., Burke, T.W., Few-Demo, A.L. et al. Perceptions of the Police by LGBT Communities. Am J Crim Just 43, 668–693 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9420-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9420-8