Abstract
In two studies, the relevance of outcome uncertainty and suspense for intrinsic motivation was examined. In Study 1, participants played a competitive zero-sum video game in which outcome uncertainty during the game (operationalized as the degree of parity between player–opponent scores) was manipulated. Greater outcome uncertainty led to greater enjoyment, and this effect was mediated by suspense. Although outperforming one’s opponent by a wide margin maximized perceived competence, these games were less enjoyable than closer games with higher outcome uncertainty. These findings were extended in Study 2, which incorporated a behavioral measure of intrinsic motivation. Participants chose to play games they previously rated as relatively high in suspense but relatively low in perceived competence over games which provided higher perceptions of competence but less suspense. Performance concern moderated this effect. Implications of the findings for theories of intrinsic motivation, and possible avenues for future research, are discussed.
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Notes
In general, for suspense theorists, “… the starting point, therefore, is the thesis that suspense is an activity of the audience (reader, onlooker, etc.) that is related to specific features and characteristics of the text (books, films, etc.)” (Vorderer et al. 1996).
Although participants received extra course credit for their participation, several students expressed their desire to participate in the study a second time, for no credit. Additionally, others not enrolled in introductory psychology courses, after hearing of the study, asked if they could participate as volunteers. We interpret these behaviors as strong indications of the intrinsically motivating nature of the activity.
In video game parlance, first-person refers to a graphical perspective rendered from the viewpoint of the person playing the game.
Occasionally the experimenter was not able to control performance precisely enough to allow play to be paused at the exact predetermined scoreline. These games were nevertheless included in the analyses, as differences between the predetermined scorelines and the actual scorelines (when play was paused) were small.
With respect to experimental control, it would have been ideal to have been able to create a predetermined algorithm which randomly assigned fictitious feedback to participants, rather than having the experimenter involved. However, because Speed Slice for the Nintendo Wii system is not open source software, this was not an option. Furthermore, doing so would likely have negatively impacted much of what was fun about the game. Ultimately, we felt the benefits of using the game outweighed the small degree of control that was sacrificed. We sought a game that was simple to learn but also very immersive and fun (i.e. intrinsically-motivating), and Speed Slice excelled in both of these categories.
Immediately before one of the three games participants eventually won, they were told that winning that round would earn them a spot in a lottery for a cash prize of approximately $100. This was done to test the hypothesis that higher outcome importance associated with these games would promote greater enjoyment, via suspense. Although this prediction was supported, the finding will not be discussed further, given the paper’s focus on outcome uncertainty.
In addition to perceived competence, perceived challenge was also examined as a mediator of the curvilinear relationship between scoreline and enjoyment. Although perceived challenge did mediate the relationship, the suspense mediation effect remained significant.
To examine the correspondence between the behavioral measure of intrinsic motivation and self-reported enjoyment, we first averaged the self-reported enjoyment ratings for the two games high in outcome uncertainty and the two games low in outcome uncertainty. We then took the difference between these two averages, and correlated this difference with game choice. The correlation was .48, p < .01.
This was a three-level model, with observations nested within margin of victory (small, wide) nested within participants. A preceding analysis indicated the pattern of covariation between the predictors and the outcome did not differ significantly between the two games (Speed Slice, Duel).
Also included in the pretest survey were items measuring intrinsic motivation for video games (“How much do you enjoy playing video games?”) and video game playing experience (“How much experience do you have playing video games?”), both measured on 7-pt. scales. Participants higher in intrinsic motivation for video games were less likely to choose the game won by a wide margin than participants lower in intrinsic motivation for video games were, e b = .55, p < .01. Intrinsic motivation for video games was not correlated with performance concern, however, and they both remained significant predictors of game choice when entered simultaneously in a logistic regression model. Video game playing experience did not predict game choice, p = .81.
Relatedness has sometimes been proposed as a third need by CET theorists (e.g. Ryan and Deci 2000).
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We thank Jeanne Nakamura, Timothy Rentz, and Diane Sunar for their comments on an earlier draft.
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Abuhamdeh, S., Csikszentmihalyi, M. & Jalal, B. Enjoying the possibility of defeat: Outcome uncertainty, suspense, and intrinsic motivation. Motiv Emot 39, 1–10 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9425-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9425-2