Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Changing trends in water sources and related pathologies in small to medium size African cities

  • Published:
GeoJournal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Global exponential water demand has resulted in the quantity and quality of household water declining rapidly in recent years. Across Sub-Saharan Africa, many small to medium size towns growing at more than 5% per annum provide the region’s momentum for urbanisation. Owing to the dismal performances of water utilities companies, urban populations have tended to resort to diverse and unsafe sources of household water. Illustrating with the city of Buea in the coastal south west Cameroon, this paper examines the changing trends in water sources and the potential health risks to its populations. It relied on a blend of information ranging from reviews of relevant secondary sources, empirical data to field surveys and laboratory analysis. Key findings point to a high level of water misallocation and non-revenue water by the water utility company; a growing movement of households from the certified pipe-borne water source to unimproved sources as follows: 36% to springs, 20% to wells, 25% to water vendors, 27% to rainwater, and 22% to boreholes and only 11% from open streams to piped water. This has resulted in the presence of coliform bacteria in all alternative water sources in Buea, corroborated by hospital returns on water borne intestinal bacterial infections. Given the proven efficiency of water distribution via public pumps and smaller retailers, there is the urgent need for a change of the water distribution paradigm in small and medium size cities in Sub-Saharan Africa to increase access for more people than through the more costly home connections preferred by utility companies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Source: BUCREP (2010)

Fig. 3

Source of data: BUCREP (2010)

Fig. 4

Source: Topographic Map extract of Buea–Douala Region, 1975 edition

Fig. 5

Source: Adamu (2016, Changing trend in water use in the Buea municipality, South West region of Cameroon, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, University of Buea, Unpublished MSc thesis). Changing trend in water use in the Buea municipality, South West region of Cameroon, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, University of Buea, Unpublished MSc thesis.

Fig. 6

Source: Buea Regional Hospital

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abramovitz, J. N. (1996). Imperiled waters, impoverished future: The decline of freshwater ecosystems. World watch Paper No. 128, Washington DC.

  • Adank, M. (2013). Small town water services: Trends, challenges and models. Thematic overview paper 27, The Hague, IRC. International Water and Sanitation Centre. http://www.irc.nl/top27. Accessed 7 June 2017.

  • Annan, K. A. (2003). International Year of Fresh Water, 2003.

  • BUCREP. (2010). Troisième Recensements General de Population et de l’Habitat. Rapport de Présentation des Résultats Définitifs. Bureau Central des Recensements et des Etudes de Population (pp. 66).

  • Buea Council. (2008). Gestion de l’eau de la commune de BUEA. Rapport de la mission ECTI de Juin 2008

  • Collignon, B., & Vezina, M. (2000). Independent water and sanitation providers in African cities: A ten country study. Washington: The World Bank and GTZ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delegation Régionale du Sud-Ouest. (2014). Cameroun Hydraulique Urbaine, Buea.

  • Folifac, F., Lifongo, L., Nkeng, G., Gaskin, S. (2009). Municipal drinking water source protection in low income countries: Case of Buea municipality Cameroon. Journal of Ecology and Natural Environment, 1(4), 073–084. July, 2009 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JENE. Accessed 23 Jan 2017.

  • Freitas, A. (2013). Water as a stress factor in Sub-Saharan Africa. Brief Issue No 12. www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/Brief_12.pdf. Accessed 16 June 2017.

  • Fube, E. M. (2011). Insufficiency of Potable Water Supply and Typhoid Endemicity in Dchang (Cameroon): A health consequence of rapid urban growth. In R. J Assako Assako (Ed.), La métropole face à son arrié​re-pays. Dianoä, Paris (pp. 147–167).

  • Jacobsen, M., Webster, M., & Vairavamoorthy, K. (Eds.). (2012). The future of water in African cities: Why waste water?. Washington: The World Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kakulu, I. I. (2011). Water and sanitation in Port Harcourt. In Mafuta, C., Formo, R. K., Nellemann, C., & Li, F. (Eds.), Green hills, blue Cities: An ecosystems approach to water resources management for African cities. A rapid response assessment. UNEP, UN Habitat & GRID-Arendal.

  • Kimengsi, J. N., Gwan, S. A., & Elinge, L. E. (2016). Buea, Cameroon and the planning challenges of peri-urban settlements. UGEC Viewpoints. March 8, 2016.

  • Mafuta, C., Formo, R. K., Nellemann, C., & Li, F. (Eds.) (2011). Green hills, blue cities- An ecosystems approach to water resources management for African cities: A rapid response assessment. UNEP, UN Habitat & GRID-Arendal.

  • Maiga, T. A. (2015). Managing public water services in medium-sized African cities. Washington: WSP & World Bank Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ministère de l’Energie et de l’Eau (MINEE). (2009). Plan d’action national de gestion intégrée des ressources en eau (PANGIRE): Etat des lieux du secteur eau et environnement. Global Water Partnership.

  • Ndaw, M. F. (2016). Private sector provision of water supply and sanitation services in rural areas and small towns: The role of the public sector. Washington: WSP & World Bank Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ndi, H. N. (2016). Estimating wasteful water use from car washing points on the water supply system of Yaounde, Cameroon. GeoJournal, 81(5), 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nedjoh, J. (2016). Ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all: A case for governance and institutional re-alignment for small towns piped water services in Africa. In 39th WEDC International Conference, Kumasi, Ghana. Briefing paper.

  • Ochieng, G. M., Olumuyiwa, I. O., Kola Ogedengbe & Ndambuki, J. M (2011). Open wells, sanitation features, ollutions and water qualities: Case study of Ibadan slums, Nigeria. International Journal of the Physical Sciences, 6(13), 3062–3073.

  • Oumar, S. B., & Mbonigaba, J. (2014). An assessment of the performance of the Cameroon Water Corporation for the period 1967 to 2013. Economic Research Southern Africa working paper 413. ERSA.

  • Pilgrim, N., Roche, B., Kalbermatten, J., Revels, C., & Kariuki, M. (2007). Principles of town water supply and sanitation. Part 1: Water supply. The World Bank. Note number 3.

  • Spooner, S. (2015). Cities without water: The frightening future of Africa’s urban areas. In Mail and guardian Africa. www.mgafrica.com/article/2015-03-04. Accessed 4 June 2017.

  • Swyngedouw, E. (2006). Power, water and money: Exploring the nexus. Occasional paper. Human Development Report Office, UNDP.

  • Triche, T., Requeno, S., & Kariuki, M. (2008). Engaging local private operators in water supply and sanitation services. Water P-Notes, Issue 3, World Bank. www.worldbank.org/water. Accessed 7 June 2017.

  • UN Water. (2013). Water scarcity. UN Water.org. Accessed 19 Jan 2017.

  • UNECA, AU, ADB & UNDP. (2015) MDG Report 2015: Assessing progress in Africa toward the millennium development goals. Addis Ababa.

  • UNEP & UN-Habitat. (2011). Green Hills, Blue Cities: An ecosystems approach to water resources management for African cities. Nairobi

  • UNFPA. (1997). Population and sustainable development: Five years after Rio. New York: UNFPA.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNICEF & WHO. (2008). A snapshot of drinking water in Africa. Prepared for AMCOM as a contribution to the 11th summit of Heads of States and Governments of the African Union.

  • USAID. (2008). Sub-Saharan Africa: Water and saniation overview. ARD Incorporated.

  • WaterAid (nd). Urban and small towns. www.wateraid.org/ppa. Accessed 17 Apr 2017.

  • Water and Sanitation Programme. (2002). Water services in small towns in Africa: The role of the small and medium sized organisations. Field Note 12.

  • World Bank & Water and Saniation Programme. (2003). Management models for small towns water supply: Lessons learned from case studies in the Philippines. ‎Canberra: Australian Agency for International Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Water Development Report 4. (2012). World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP).

  • WWF. (2011). Big cities, big water, big challenges: Water in an urbanising world. Gland: WWF.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The article titled “Changing trends in water sources and related pathologies in small to medium size African cities” has neither been submitted to any other journal for consideration, nor has it been published partially or wholly in the past. No data has been fabricated and all consulted sources have been acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geography, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon

    Baba Adamu

  2. Department of Geography, Higher Teacher Training College, University of Yaounde 1, Yaounde, Cameroon

    Humphrey Ngala Ndi

Authors
  1. Baba Adamu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Humphrey Ngala Ndi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Humphrey Ngala Ndi.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

Both authors consent to this submission and they have all contributed significantly in writing-up the paper. In addition, the authors suffer from no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Adamu, B., Ndi, H.N. Changing trends in water sources and related pathologies in small to medium size African cities. GeoJournal 83, 885–896 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-017-9808-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-017-9808-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation