Abstract
Individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience impairments in a number of functional domains. Although current evidence-based treatments for ADHD reduce symptoms and improve academic and behavioral functioning, they have minimal impact on social functioning or on risky behaviors (see Evans et al. in J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol, 43:527–551, 2014 for review). Preliminary evidence indicates that emotion dysregulation (ED) is associated with impairments across the developmental spectrum, such as social impairment and risky behaviors, and that its relative absence/presence is differentially associated with treatment response. It thus stands to reason that by incorporating a focus on ED in interventions targeting social impairment and risky behaviors, we may be able to increase the number of youth who respond to such interventions and decrease the prevalence or degree of these impairments and behaviors among youth and adults with ADHD. However, a number of questions remain unaddressed about the association between ADHD and ED, such as the portion of individuals with ADHD who experience ED, the extent to which ED is associated with the above impairments and behaviors, and whether or not ED is malleable. To begin addressing these questions, we summarize and critically evaluate the literature on the association between ADHD and ED and make recommendations for future basic, translational, and treatment outcome research.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
We use the word “steps” for purposes of manageability with regard to wording our ensuing discussion. It is important to note that in doing so, we do not intend to convey that emotion regulation is not a dynamic process (as we believe it is).
Discomfort with one’s own emotions and negative beliefs about the effects and after-effects of those emotions.
The sample was comprised of youth with depression, conduct problems, comorbid depression/conduct problems, or no psychiatric condition. Participants were between the ages of 13–17 years and were 61 % female, 53 % Caucasian, 19 % Hispanic, 15 % Asian, 11 % African American, and 3 % mixed racial heritage. ED was measured via self-report on the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). Psychological problems were measured via self-report on the Patient Health Questionnaire-Adolescent (PHQ-A).
Respiratory sinus arrhythmia was measured during a 5-min resting baseline, followed by a 3-min video clip from the movie The Champ, in which a young child witnesses and reacts to the death of his father. This film clip has been demonstrated to evoke sadness (see Gross and Levenson 1995) and to result in physiological reactivity—including changes in RSA—that are consistent with individual differences in ER abilities.
For example, heightened intensity of emotions and generalized anxiety symptoms r = .27 and social anxiety symptoms r = −.07; poor understanding of emotions and generalized anxiety symptoms r = .17 and social anxiety symptoms r = .32; negative reactivity to emotions and generalized anxiety symptoms r = .31 and social anxiety symptoms r = .37 (Mennin et al. 2007).
According to Barkley (1997), “circumstances or tasks that involve temporal delays, conflicts in temporally related consequences, or the generation of novel responses” are the ones that most heavily tax the type of behavioral inhibition relevant to ADHD. “Tasks requiring resistance to temptation or deferred gratification are of this sort. Among the several dimensions of impulsivity discovered in past research (behavioral and cognitive-motor, typically) … it is that dimension reflected in deferred gratification and resistance to temptation, or what others have also called ‘behavioral inhibition’, that is associated with the inhibitory processes” implicated in ADHD (p. 68).
Due to the possibility that with small sample sizes there would be power limitations to detecting such small effect sizes in subsample comparisons, we revisited Maedgen and Carlson’s data. In their study, Maedgen and Carlson found a statistically significant difference across subtypes of ADHD. Of note, the sample size in that study was smaller (Maedgen and Carlson 2000; ADHD-C = 16, ADHD-I = 14) than the size of our (Bunford et al. 2014) sample. Yet, between-group comparisons yielded statistically significant differences, indicating that effect sizes may have been substantial. We thus calculated effect sizes (Cohen’s d) for both the data obtained by Maedgen and Carlson and our own data. These range from .44 to 1.1 in the Maedgen and Carlson study and from .02 to .32 in the Bunford et al. (2014) study. Thus, although Maedgen and Carlson obtained medium to large effect differences with a sample that was ~ 1/4th of ours, we obtained small effect differences only. This indicates that our not having found group differences may not be a function of the size of our sample but, rather, reflects a true absence of a difference.
Nigg (2010; p. 25) argues that ADHD is a combination of problems in both bottom-up (e.g., emotion generation) and top-down (e.g., emotion control) control systems […] and that “what psychopathologists call attention problems reflects difficulty in regulation, constraint, and effortful control, whereas impulsivity and perhaps hyperactivity are related to breakdown in incentive response systems”.
Note that findings on PNS abnormalities among youth with externalizing problems are consistent across studies but those on SNS abnormalities are not. One explanation for these mixed results pertains to the type of experimental task employed. For example, Beauchaine et al. (2007) and Calkins (1997) used reward-based tasks, which engage the SNS more so than the PNS (Musser et al. 2011). Conversely, Musser and colleagues focused specifically on emotion regulation (as opposed to an association between changes in ANS functioning at baseline and externalizing behavior) and employed a negative and positive mood induction and suppression paradigm. It might be the case that youth with ADHD exhibit different PNS and SNS activity than typically developing peers during a baseline condition but demonstrate only PNS abnormalities during an emotion regulation task. Finally, Musser and colleagues’ sample included children with ADHD, whereas a broadly conceptualized externalizing sample was included in Beauchaine et al. (2007), Calkins (1997), and Crowell et al. (2006). This is noteworthy because, despite the common behavioral co-occurrence, it is not clear that ADHD and externalizing problems are the same in terms of ANS abnormalities (e.g., Musser et al. 2011).
But boys with ADHD + high aggression were different in terms of their ED from boys with ADHD + low aggression and from boys without ADHD.
Of note, the empirical findings of Banaschewski et al. (2012) did not support the notion that performance on measures of these functions explains the association of ADHD and emotional lability.
Although this is not an exhaustive list of available measures, it is a list of commonly used measures for which there is considerable psychometric data available.
A child with depression may demonstrate stable but intensely negative emotional states.
“Child cognitively reinterprets the situation to find a tenable way, or sees a bright side, for example, “Even though I can’t finish, the model, I can still have fun.” Alternatively, he makes verbal statements or behaves in a way that indicates acceptance of the given conditions of the task, for example, shrugs shoulders and says ‘its okay’” (Melnick and Hinshaw 2000; p. 77).
“Child makes statements or expressions focusing on the negative, threatening, or uncontrollable aspects of the task, for example, blames others or complains he won’t win the prize” (Melnick and Hinshaw 2000; p. 78).
Marginally significant finding.
Those who hold high levels of negative mood regulation expectancies believe that their coping efforts will improve affect, whereas those with low negative mood regulation expectancies believe that their efforts will have little effect on their on their feelings of distress.
Defined here as emotional restraint, which is a way of managing negative emotions by suppression.
Although childhood conduct problems did contribute significantly to risky sexual behaviors among participants with ADHD, there was also an independent contribution of ADHD.
The eight-item ED subscale of this measure demonstrated both excellent internal consistency and external validity, as indicated by significant correlations between scores on the subscale and impairment on measures assessing quality of life and social functioning.
Participants in this study were conceptualized as exhibiting ED if their self-ratings on the ED subscale were at least as impaired as the worst 5 % of ratings among individuals without ADHD.
ADHD symptoms were measured on a modified version of the DuPaul Rating Scale. Emotional lability was measured on the parent-rated Conner’s 10-item scale and indexed by four items “demands must be met immediately—easily frustrated,” “cries often and easily,” “mood changes quickly and drastically,” and “temper outbursts, explosive, and unpredictable behavior”.
According to Linehan (1993), chronic and pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered the core feature and core difficulty in BPD and related disorders rather than a “symptom” of the disorder.
For more a more detailed discussion on more specific invalidating processes [i.e., invalidation of emotions, thoughts, wants, and other internal or private behaviors; invalidation of overt or public behavior; minimizing difficulties, invalidation of a sense of self and self-initiated behavior] and the effects of chronic and pervasive invalidation developmentally, see Fruzzetti et al. (2005).
Thirty-two adolescents completed a16-week group DBT skills training program and pre- and post-treatment measures. All components of the core mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness, emotion regulation, and distress tolerance modules from Linehan (1993) DBT manual were taught with age-appropriate modifications (Nelson-Gray et al. 2006).
In CERT, clinicians are able to "match" the intervention to children's emotion regulatory needs and symptoms. Therapists work with children to complete in-session activities and with parents to teach them how to coach the child during the week. Outside of sessions, children complete “homework” assignments with guidance and support from their parents. CERT involves 22 sessions occurring over 6 months with 6- to 12-month follow-up after treatment ends.
In Hesslinger et al. (2002), all participants were selected on the basis of ADHD-status, but ED was not measured. The program consisted of a 13-week group psychoeducation and skills program delivered for 2 h a week. DBT was modified for adults with ADHD to include psychoeducation on the neurobiology of ADHD, medications for ADHD, dependency, self-respect, and the role of ADHD symptoms in relationships as well as skills training in mindfulness, functional behavior analysis, impulse control, emotion regulation, and stress management.
Consisting of a 15-minute individual pre-group motivation-enhancing meeting, eight weekly 90-minute group skills training sessions and seven weekly 10- to 15-minute individual coaching phone calls focused on skills generalization. A 90-minute group booster session was held during the first week of the follow-up quarter. DBT groups skills training included psychoeducation and skills trainings in goal setting, daily planner use, task prioritization and chunking, environment restructuring, using social support, managing sleep, eating, and exercise habits, mindfulness, emotion regulation such as opposite action, planning for high-demand periods, and planning for skill maintenance.
Students in the handouts condition were provided with a self-help booklet that contained information on psychoeducation about ADHD, organization, planning, time management, environment restructuring, and stress management.
Barkley and Fischer (2010) found that, among adults with ADHD (assessed for the association between emotional impulsivity and educational outcomes at age 27 years), emotional impulsivity predicted having completed less education as well as more school expulsions and suspensions, above and beyond ADHD symptoms. Emotional impulsivity was further negatively associated with graduation from high school and from college, above and beyond ADHD symptoms. Of note, only emotional impulsivity (and not ADHD symptoms) predicted school expulsions and suspensions and only emotional impulsivity was negatively related to graduation from high school.
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL/4-18, YSR, and TRF profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 217–237.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Ames, C., Richardson, J., Payne, S., Smith, P., & Leigh, E. (2014). Innovations in practice: Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression in adolescents. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 19(1), 74–78.
Appelhans, B. M., & Luecken, L. J. (2006). Heart rate variability as an index of regulated emotional responding. Review of General Psychology, 10(3), 229–240.
Apsche, J. A., Bass, C. K., & Houston, M. (2006). A one year study of adolescent males with aggression and problems of conduct and personality: A comparison of MDT and DBT. International Journal of Behavioral and Consultation Therapy, 2, 544–552.
Augustine, A. A., & Hemenover, S. H. (2009). On the relative effectiveness of affect regulation strategies: A meta-analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 1181–1220.
Babinski, D. E., Pelham, W. E., Molina, B. S., Gnagy, E. M., Waschbusch, D. A., Yu, J., et al. (2010). Late adolescent and young adult outcomes of girls diagnosed with ADHD in childhood: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Attention Disorders, 15, 204–214.
Banaschewski, T., Hollis, C., Oosterlaan, J., Roeyers, H., Rubia, K., Willcutt, E., & Taylor, E. (2005). Towards an understanding of unique and shared pathways in the psychopathophysiology of ADHD. Developmental Science, 8, 132–140.
Banaschewski, T., Jennen-Steinmetz, C., Brandeis, D., Buitelaar, J. K., Kuntsi, J., Poustka, L., et al. (2012). Neuropsychological correlates of emotional lability in children with ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(11), 1139–1148.
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.
Barkley, R. A. (2010). Deficient emotional self-regulation: A core component of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of ADHD and Related Disorders, 1, 5–37.
Barkley, R., Anastopoulos, A. D., Guevremont, D. C., & Fletcher, K. E. (1992). Adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Mother–adolescent interactions, family beliefs and conflicts, and maternal psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 263–288.
Barkley, R. A., & Fischer, M. (2010). The unique contribution of emotional impulsiveness to impairment in major life activities in hyperactive children as adults. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(5), 503–513.
Barkley, R. A., Fischer, M., Smallish, L., & Fletcher, K. (2006). Young adult outcome of hyperactive children: Adaptive functioning in major life activities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 192–202.
Barkley, R. A., Murphy, K. R., & Fischer, M. (2008). ADHD in adults: What the science tells us. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Beauchaine, T. P. (2001). Vagal tone, development, and Gray’s motivational theory: Toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 183–214.
Beauchaine, T. P., Gartner, J., & Hagen, B. (2000). Comorbid depression and heart rate variability as predictors of aggressive and hyperactive symptom responsiveness during inpatient treatment of conduct‐disordered, ADHD boys. Aggressive Behavior, 26(6), 425–441.
Beauchaine, T. P., Gatzke-Kopp, L., & Mead, H. K. (2007). Polyvagal theory and developmental psychopathology: Emotion dysregulation and conduct problems from preschool to adolescence. Biological Psychology, 74, 174–184.
Bech, P. (2006). Rating scales in depression: Limitations and pitfalls. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 8(2), 207–215.
Bei, B., Byrne, M., Ivens, C., Waloszek, J., Woods, M., Dudgeon, P., et al. (2013). Pilot study of a mindfulness-based, multi-component, in-school group sleep intervention in adolescent girls. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 7(2), 213–220.
Berkowitz, L. (1999). Anger. In T. Dagleish & M. Power (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 411–428). Chichester: Wiley.
Biederman, I. (1972). Perceiving real-world scenes. Science, 177, 77–80.
Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Spencer, T. J., Mick, E., Monuteaux, M. C., & Aleardi, M. (2006). Functional impairments in adults with self-reports of diagnosed ADHD: A controlled study of 1001 adults in the community. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 524–540.
Biederman, J., Newcorn, J., & Sprich, S. (1991). Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with conduct, depressive, anxiety, and other disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 564–577.
Biederman, J., Spencer, T., Lomedico, A., Day, H., Petty, C. R., & Faraone, S. V. (2012). Deficient emotional self-regulation and pediatric attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A family risk analysis. Psychological Medicine, 42(03), 639–646.
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., et al. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241.
Bonanno, G. A. (2001). Emotion self-regulation. In T. J. Mayne & G. A. Bonanno (Eds.), Emotions (pp. 251–285). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Braaten, E. B., & Rosen, L. A. (1997). Emotional reactions in adults with symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Personality and Individual Differences, 22(3), 355–361.
Braaten, E. B., & Rosen, L. A. (2000). Self-regulation of affect in attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and non-ADHD boys: Differences in empathic responding. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(2), 313–321.
Bradley, B., DeFife, J. A., Guarnaccia, C., Phifer, J., Fani, N., Ressler, K. J., & Westen, D. (2011). Emotion dysregulation and negative affect: Association with psychiatric symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72(5), 685–691.
Britton, W., Lepp, N., Niles, H., Rocha, T., Fisher, N., & Gold, J. (2014). A randomized controlled pilot trial of classroom-based mindfulness meditation compared to an active control condition in sixth-grade children. Journal of School Psychology, 52(3), 263–278.
Brown, L. K., Hadley, W., & Stewart, A. (2012). Psychiatric disorders and sexual risk among adolescents in mental health treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 590–597.
Buhrmester, D., Camparo, L., Christensen, A., Gonzalez, L. S., & Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Mothers and fathers interacting in dyads and triads with normal and hyperactive sons. Developmental Psychology, 28(3), 500.
Bunford, N., Brandt, N., Golden, K., Dykstra, J., Owens, J. S., & Suhr, J. A. (2015a). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms mediate the association between neuropsychological and social impairment among children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 133–147.
Bunford, N., Evans, S. W., Becker, S. A., & Langberg, J. M. (2015b). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and social skills in youth: A moderated mediation model of emotion dysregulation and depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 283–296.
Bunford, N., Evans, S. W., & Langberg, J. M. (2014). Emotion dysregulation is associated with social impairment among young adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/1087054714527793.
Bunford, N., Evans, S. W., Zoccola, P. M. & Rybak, T. (2013). Validating a frustration task to assess emotion dysregulation in adolescents with ADHD. Poster presented at the semi-annual meeting of the International Society for Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, Leuven, Belgium.
Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., & Phillips, C. M. (2001). Do people aggress to improve their mood? Catharsis beliefs, affect regulation opportunity, and aggressive responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(1), 17–32.
Calkins, S. D. (1997). Cardiac vagal tone indices of temperamental reactivity and behavioral regulation in young children. Developmental Psychobiology, 31(2), 125–135.
Calkins, S. D., Gill, K. L., Johnson, M. C., & Smith, C. L. (1999). Emotional reactivity and emotional regulation strategies as predictors of social behavior with peers during toddlerhood. Social Development, 8(3), 310–334.
Cassidy, J., Woodhouse, S. S., Sherman, L. J., Stupica, B., & Lejuez, C. W. (2011). Enhancing infant attachment security: An examination of treatment efficacy and differential susceptibility. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 131–148.
Cassone, A. R. (2015). Mindfulness training as an adjunct to evidence-based treatment for ADHD within families. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19, 147–157.
Chang, L., Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., & McBride-Chang, C. (2003). Harsh parenting in relation to child emotion regulation and aggression. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(4), 598–606.
Cicchetti, D., Ackerman, B. P., & Izard, C. E. (1995). Emotions and emotion regulation in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 1–10.
Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75, 317–333.
Cooper, M. L., Shapiro, C. M., & Powers, A. M. (1998). Motivations for sex and risky sexual behavior among adolescents and young adults: a functional perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(6), 1528–1558.
Critchley, H. (2003). Emotion and its disorders: Imaging in clinical neuroscience. British Medical Bulletin, 65(1), 35–47.
Crockenberg, S. C., Leerkes, E. M., & Lekka, S. K. (2007). Pathways from marital aggression to infant emotion regulation: The development of withdrawal in infancy. Infant Behavior and Development, 30(1), 97–113.
Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Sylvers, P., Mead, H., & Chipman-Chacon, J. (2006). Autonomic correlates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder in preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(1), 174–178.
Cupach, W., & Olson, L. (2006). Emotion regulation theory: A lens for viewing family conflict and violence. In D. Braithwaite & L. Baxter (Eds.), Engaging theories in family communication: Multiple perspectives (pp. 213–229). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.
Dan-Glauser, E., & Gross, J. (2011). The temporal dynamics of two response-focused forms of emotion regulation: Experiential, expressive, and autonomic consequences. Psychophysiology, 48, 1309–1322.
Denham, S. A. (1998). Emotional development in young children. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1997). Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament. Development and Psychopathology, 9(04), 633–652.
Dunsmore, J. C., Booker, J. A., Ollendick, T. H., & Greene, R. W. (2015). Emotion socialization in the context of risk and psychopathology: Maternal emotion coaching predicts better treatment outcomes for emotionally labile children with oppositional defiant disorder. Social Development. doi:10.1111/sode.12109.
Evans, S. W., Owens, J. S., & Bunford, N. (2014). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 43, 527–551.
Fargason, R. E., & Ford, C. V. (1994). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: Diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. Southern Medical Journal, 87, 302–309.
Farrell, A. D., & Danish, S. J. (1993). Peer drug associations and emotional restraint: Causes or consequences of adolescents’ drug use? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(2), 327–334.
Feindler, E. L., & Ecton, R. B. (1986). Adolescent anger control: Cognitive-behavioral techniques. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.
Finn, P. R., Sharkansky, E. J., Brandt, K. M., & Turcotte, N. (2000). The effects of familial risk, personality, and expectancies on alcohol use and abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 122–133.
Fleming, A., & McMahon, R. (2012). Developmental context and treatment principles for ADHD among college students. Clinical Child Family Psychology Review, 15, 303–329.
Fleming, A., McMahon, R., Moran, L., Peterson, A., & Dreessen, A. (2014). Pilot randomized controlled trial of dialectical behavior therapy group skills training for ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/1087054714535951.
Flory, K., Molina, B. S., Pelham, W. E, Jr, Gnagy, E., & Smith, B. (2006). Childhood ADHD predicts risky sexual behavior in young adulthood. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(4), 571–577.
Fresco, D. M., Wolfson, S. L., Crowther, J. H., & Docherty, N. M. (2002). Distinct and overlapping patterns of emotion regulation in the comorbidity of generalized anxiety disorder and the eating disorders. Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Research in Psychopathology, San Francisco, California.
Fristad, M. A., Weller, E. B., & Weller, R. A. (1992). The Mania Rating Scale: can it be used in children? A preliminary report. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(2), 252–257.
Froehlich, T. E., Lanphear, B. P., Epstein, J. N., Barbaresi, W. J., Katusic, S. K., & Kahn, R. S. (2007). Prevalence, recognition, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a national sample of US children. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 161, 857–864.
Fruzzetti, A. E., Shenk, C., & Hoffman, P. D. (2005). Family interaction and the development of borderline personality disorder: A transactional model. Development and Psychopathology, 17(04), 1007–1030.
Furlong, M. J., & Smith, D. C. (1994). Anger, hostility, and aggression: Assessment, prevention, and intervention strategies for youth. Brandon, VT: Clinical Psychology Publishing Company Inc.
Galanter, C. A., Carlson, G. A., Jensen, P. S., Greenhill, L. L., Davies, M., Li, W., & Swanson, J. M. (2003). Response to methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and manic symptoms in the multimodal treatment study of children with ADHD titration trial. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 13, 123–136.
Galéra, C., Messiah, A., Melchior, M., Chastang, J. F., Encrenaz, G., Lagarde, E., et al. (2010). Disruptive behaviors and early sexual intercourse: The GAZEL youth study. Psychiatry Research, 177(3), 361–363.
Goldsmith, H., & Davidson, R. J. (2004). Disambiguating the components of emotion regulation. Child Development, 75, 361–365.
Gottman, J. M., & Katz, L. F. (1989). Effects of marital discord on young children’s peer interaction and health. Developmental Psychology, 25, 373–381.
Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54.
Gratz, K. L., & Tull, M. T. (2010). The relationship between emotion dysregulation and deliberate self-harm among inpatient substance users. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34, 544–553.
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299.
Gross, J. J. (1999). Emotion regulation: Past, present, and future. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 551–573.
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348–362.
Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1995). Emotion elicitation using films. Cognition and Emotion, 9(1), 87–108.
Gruber, J. (2011). Can feeling too good be bad? Positive emotion persistence (PEP) in bipolar disorder. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(4), 217–221.
Harty, S. C., Miller, C. J., Newcorn, J. H., & Halperin, J. M. (2009). Adolescents with childhood ADHD and comorbid disruptive behavior disorders: Aggression, anger, and hostility. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 40(1), 85–97.
Haydicky, J., Shecter, C., Wiener, J., & Ducharme, J. M. (2015). Evaluation of MBCT for adolescents with ADHD and their parents: Impact on individual and family functioning. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(1), 76–94.
Henker, B., & Whalen, C. K. (1989). Hyperactivity and attention deficits. American Psychologist, 44, 216–223.
Hessler, D. M., & Katz, L. F. (2010). Brief report: Associations between emotional competence and adolescent risky behavior. Journal of Adolescence, 33(1), 241–246.
Hesslinger, B., Tebartz van Elst, L., Nyberg, E., Dykierek, P., Richter, H., Berner, M., & Ebert, D. (2002). Psychotherapy of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: A pilot study using a structured skills training program. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 252, 177–184.
Hinshaw, S. P., & Melnick, S. (1992). Self-management therapies and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Behavior Modification, 16, 253–273.
Hinshaw, S. P., Owens, E. B., Sami, N., & Fargeon, S. (2006). Prospective follow-up of girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into adolescence: Evidence for continuing cross-domain impairment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(3), 489.
Hjelland, I. E., Svebak, S., Berstad, A., Flatabø, G., & Hausken, T. (2007). Breathing exercises with vagal biofeedback may benefit patients with functional dyspepsia. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology, 42(9), 1054–1062.
Hosain, G. M., Berenson, A. B., Tennen, H., Bauer, L. O., & Wu, Z. H. (2012). Attention deficit hyperactivity symptoms and risky sexual behavior in young adult women. Journal of Women’s Health, 21(4), 463–468.
Hoy, E., Weiss, G., Minde, K., & Cohen, N. (1978). The hyperactive child at adolescence: Emotional, social, and cognitive functioning. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 311–324.
Hoza, B. (2007). Peer functioning in children with ADHD. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 7(1 Suppl.), 101–106.
Johnston, C., & Mash, E. J. (2001). Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Review and recommendations for future research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4(3), 183–207.
Kassel, J. D., Jackson, S. I., & Unrod, M. (2000). Generalized expectancies for negative mood regulation and problem drinking among college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61(2), 332–340.
Kats-Gold, I., Besser, A., & Priel, B. (2007). The role of simple emotion recognition skills among school aged boys at risk of ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 363–378.
Kessler, R., Adler, L., Barkley, R., Biederman, J., Conners, C., Demler, O., et al. (2006). The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(4), 716–723.
Kim, H. K., Pears, K. C., Capaldi, D. M., & Owen, L. D. (2009). Emotion dysregulation in the intergenerational transmission of romantic relationship conflict. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(4), 585–595.
Kobak, R. R., Cole, H. E., Ferenz-Gillies, R., Fleming, W. S., & Gamble, W. (1993). Attachment and emotion regulation during mother-teen problem solving: A control theory analysis. Child Development, 64, 231–245.
Kovacs, M. (2004). Children’s depression inventory (CDI). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems Inc.
Kovacs, M. (2009). Manual of contextual emotion regulation therapy for depression in childhood. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Kovacs, M., & Lopez-Duran, N. (2012). Contextual emotion regulation therapy: A developmentally based intervention for pediatric depression. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21(2), 327–343.
Kowatch, R. A., Youngstrom, E. A., Danielyan, A., & Findling, R. L. (2005). Review and meta-analysis of the phenomenology and clinical characteristics of mania in children and adolescents. Bipolar Disorders, 7, 483–496.
Landau, S., & Moore, L. A. (1991). Social skill deficits in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Review, 20, 235–251.
Langberg, J. M., Epstein, J. N., Altaye, M., Molina, B. S., Arnold, L. E., & Vitiello, B. (2008). The transition to middle school is associated with changes in the developmental trajectory of ADHD symptomatology in young adolescents with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 651–663.
Leahy, R. L. (2002). A model of emotional schemas. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9(3), 177–190.
Lemerise, E. A., & Arsenio, W. F. (2000). An integrated model of emotion processes and cognition in social information processing. Child Development, 71(1), 107–118.
Levitt, S. D., & List, J. A. (2007). What do laboratory experiments measuring social preferences reveal about the real world? The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21(2), 153–174.
Lewis, M. D., & Stieben, J. (2004). Emotion regulation in the brain: Conceptual issues and directions for developmental research. Child Development, 75, 371–376.
Liehr, P., & Diaz, N. (2010). A pilot study examining the effect of mindfulness on depression and anxiety for minority children. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 24(1), 69–71.
Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Linehan, M. M., Bohus, M., & Lynch, T. R. (2007). Dialectical behavior therapy for pervasive emotion dysregulation: Theoretical and practical underpinnings. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 581–605). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Loeber, R., Wung, P., Keenan, K., Giroux, B., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Van Kammen, W. B., & Maugham, B. (1993). Developmental pathways in disruptive child behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 5(1–2), 103–133.
Loney, J., Kramer, J., & Milich, R. (1981). The hyperkinetic child grows up: Predictors of symptoms, delinquency, and achievement at follow-up. In K. Gadow & J. Loney (Eds.), Psychosocial aspects of drug treatment for hyperactivity (pp. 381–415). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Luman, M., Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (2005). The impact of reinforcement contingencies on AD/HD: A review and theoretical appraisal. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(2), 183–213.
MacDermott, S. T. (2011). The development and psychometric evaluation of two measures of emotion regulation for use with older children and adolescents. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
MacDermott, S. T., Gullone, E., Allen, J. S., King, N. J., & Tonge, B. (2010). The emotion regulation index for children and adolescents (ERICA): a psychometric investigation. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 32(3), 301–314.
Maedgen, J. W., & Carlson, C. L. (2000). Social functioning and emotional regulation in the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder subtypes. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 30–42.
Martin, C. S., Lynch, K. G., Pollock, N. K., & Clark, D. B. (2000). Gender differences and similarities in the personality correlates of adolescent alcohol problems. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 14, 121–133.
Mash, E. J., & Hunsley, J. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of child and adolescent disorders: Issues and challenges. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(3), 362–379.
Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children’s emotion regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73(5), 1525–1542.
McCraty, R., Atkinson, M., Tiller, W. A., Rein, G., & Watkins, A. D. (1995). The effects of emotions on short-term power spectrum analysis of heart rate variability. The American Journal of Cardiology, 76(14), 1089–1093.
Melnick, S. M., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2000). Emotion regulation and parenting in AD/HD and comparison boys: Linkages with social behaviors and peer preference. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 73–86.
Mennin, D. S., Holaway, R. M., Fresco, D. M., Moore, M. T., & Heimberg, R. G. (2007). Delineating components of emotion and its dysregulation in anxiety and mood psychopathology. Behavior Therapy, 38(3), 284–302.
Merwood, A., Chen, W., Rijsdijk, F., Skirrow, C., Larsson, H., Thapar, A., et al. (2014). Genetic associations between the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and emotional lability in child and adolescent twins. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(2), 209–220.
Messman-Moore, T. L., Walsh, K. L., & DiLillo, D. (2010). Emotion dysregulation and risky sexual behavior in revictimization. Child Abuse and Neglect, 34(12), 967–976.
Miller, A. L., Rathus, J. H., & Linehan, M. M. (2007). Dialectical behavior therapy with suicidal adolescents. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Miranda, A., & Presentacion, M. (2000). Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of children with ADHD with and without aggressiveness. Psychology in the Schools, 37(2), 169–182.
Molina, B. S., Flory, K., Hinshaw, S. P., Greiner, A. R., Arnold, L. E., Swanson, J. M., et al. (2007). Delinquent behavior and emerging substance use in the MTA at 36 months: prevalence, course, and treatment effects. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(8), 1028–1040.
Molina, B. S., & Pelham, W. E. (2003). Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 497–507.
Molina, B. S., Smith, B. H., & Pelham, W. E. (1999). Interactive effects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder on early adolescent substance use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 13, 348–358.
Monuteaux, M. C., Faraone, S. V., Gross, L. M., & Biederman, J. (2007). Predictors, clinical characteristics, and outcome of conduct disorder in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a longitudinal study. Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences, 37(12), 1731–1741.
Morris, S. E., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2012). Research Domain Criteria: cognitive systems, neural circuits, and dimensions of behavior. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 14(1), 29–37.
Mulder, M. J., Baeyens, D., Davidson, M. C., Casey, B. J., Van Den Ban, E. V., Van Engeland, H., & Durston, S. (2008). Familial vulnerability to ADHD affects activity in the cerebellum in addition to the prefrontal systems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(1), 68–75.
Murphy, K., & Barkley, R. A. (1996). Prevalence of DSM-IV symptoms of ADHD in adult licensed drivers: Implications for clinical diagnosis. Journal of Attention Disorders, 1(3), 147–161.
Musser, E. D., Backs, R. W., Schmitt, C. F., Ablow, J. C., Measelle, J. R., & Nigg, J. T. (2011). Emotion regulation via the autonomic nervous system in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 841–852.
Nakahara, H., Furuya, S., Francis, P. R., & Kinoshita, H. (2010). Psycho-physiological responses to expressive piano performance. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 75(3), 268–276.
Nelson-Gray, R., Keane, S., Hurst, R., Mitchell, J., Warburton, J., Chok, J., & Cobb, A. (2006). A modified DBT skills training for oppositional defiant adolescents: Promising preliminary findings. Behavior Research and Therapy, 44, 1811–1820.
Nigg, J. T. (2005). Neuropsychologic theory and findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the state of the field and salient challenges for the coming decade. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1424–1435.
Nigg, J. T. (2006). Temperament and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3–4), 395–422.
Nigg, J. T. (2010). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder endophenotypes, structure, and etiological pathways. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 24–29.
Nigg, J. T., Blaskey, L. G., Huang-Pollock, C. L., & Rappley, M. D. (2002a). Neuropsychological executive functions and DSM-IV ADHD subtypes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(1), 59–66.
Nigg, J. T., Goldsmith, H. H., & Sachek, J. (2004). Temperament and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: The development of a multiple pathway model. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(1), 42–53.
Nigg, J. T., Hinshaw, S. P., & Halperin, J. M. (1996). Continuous performance test in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Methylphenidate dose response and relations with observed behaviors. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25, 330–340.
Nigg, J. T., John, O. P., Blaskey, L. G., Huang-Pollock, C. L., Willcutt, E. G., Hinshaw, S. P., & Pennington, B. (2002b). Big five dimensions and ADHD symptoms: Links between personality traits and clinical symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 451–469.
Pelham, W. E., & Sams, S. E. (1992). Behavior modification. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 1, 255.
Pfiffner, L. J., & McBurnett, K. (1997). Social skills training with parent generalization: Treatment effects for children with attention deficit disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 749–757.
Philipsen, A., Richter, H., Peters, J., Alm, B., Sobanski, E., Colla, M., et al. (2007). Structured group psychotherapy in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Results of an open multicentre study. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195, 1013–1019.
Porges, S. W. (2001). The polyvagal theory: Phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 123–146.
Raes, F., Griffith, J., Gucht, K., & Williams, J. (2013). School-based prevention and reduction of depression in adolescents: A cluster-randomized controlled trial of a mindfulness group program. Mindfulness, 5, 477–486.
Raffaelli, M., & Crockett, L. J. (2003). Sexual risk taking in adolescence: the role of self-regulation and attraction to risk. Developmental Psychology, 39(6), 1036.
Ranseen, J. D., Campbell, D. A., & Baer, R. A. (1998). NEO PI-R profiles of adults with attention deficit disorder. Assessment, 5(1), 19–24.
Rohrbeck, C. A., Azar, S. T., & Wagner, P. E. (1991). Child self-control rating scale: Validation of a child self-report measure. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20, 179–183.
Rosen, P. J., & Epstein, J. N. (2010). A pilot study of ecological momentary assessment of emotion dysregulation in children. Journal of ADHD and Related Disorders, 1(4), 39–52.
Rosen, P. J., Epstein, J. N., & Van Orden, G. (2013). I know it when I quantify it: Ecological momentary assessment and recurrence quantification analysis of emotion dysregulation in children with ADHD. ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders, 5, 283–294.
Rosen, P. J., & Factor, P. I. (2012). Emotional impulsivity and emotional and behavioral difficulties among children with ADHD: An ecological momentary assessment study. Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/1087054712463064.
Salovey, P., Stroud, L. R., Woolery, A., & Epel, E. S. (2002). Perceived emotional intelligence, stress reactivity, and symptom reports: Further explorations using the trait meta-mood scale. Psychology and Health, 17(5), 611–627.
Schulz, M. S., Waldinger, R. J., Hauser, S. T., & Allen, J. P. (2005). Adolescents’ behavior in the presence of interparental hostility: Developmental and emotion regulatory influences. Development and Psychopathology, 17(2), 489–507.
Scott, S., & O’Connor, T. (2012). An experimental test of differential susceptibility to parenting among emotionally dysregulated children in a randomized controlled trial for oppositional behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(11), 1184–1193.
Semple, R., Reid, E., & Miller, L. (2005). Treating anxiety with mindfulness: An open trial of mindfulness training for anxious children. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly, 19(4), 379–392.
Seymour, K., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Halldorsdottir, T., Stupica, B., Owens, K., & Sacks, T. (2012). Emotion regulation mediates the relationship between ADHD and depressive symptoms in youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 595–606.
Seymour, K. E., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Iwamoto, D. K., Kurdziel, G., & MacPherson, L. (2014). Emotion regulation mediates the association between ADHD and depressive symptoms in a community sample of youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(4), 611–621.
Shapiro, E. G., Hughes, S. J., August, G. J., & Bloomquist, M. L. (1993). Processing of emotional information in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 9(3–4), 207–224.
Shelton, D., Kesten, K., Zhang, W., & Trestman, R. (2011). Impact of a dialectic behavior therapy-corrections modified (DBT-CM) upon behaviorally challenged incarcerated male adolescents. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 24(2), 105–113.
Shields, A. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1997). Emotion regulation and autonomy: The development and validation of two new criterion Q-sort scales. Developmental Psychology, 33, 906–916.
Singh, S. D., Ellis, C. R., Winton, A. S., Singh, N. N., Leung, J. P., & Oswald, D. P. (1998). Recognition of facial expressions of emotion by children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behavior Modification, 22(2), 128–142.
Sjöwall, D., Roth, L., Lindqvist, S., & Thorell, L. B. (2013). Multiple deficits in ADHD: Executive dysfunction, delay aversion, reaction time variability, and emotional deficits. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(6), 619–627.
Skowron, E. A. (2000). The role of differentiation of self in marital adjustment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 229–237.
Skowron, E. A., & Friedlander, M. L. (1998). The differentiation of self inventory: Development and initial validation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 235–246.
Snyder, J., Schrepferman, L., & St. Peter, C. (1997). Origins of antisocial behavior: Negative reinforcement and affect dysregulation of behavior as socialization mechanisms in family interaction. Behavior Modification, 21, 187–215.
Sobanski, E., Banaschewski, T., Asherson, P., Buitelaar, J., Chen, W., Franke, B., et al. (2010). Emotional lability in children and adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): clinical correlates and familial prevalence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(8), 915–923.
Soto, C. J., John, O. P., Gosling, S. D., & Potter, J. (2008). The developmental psychometrics of big five self-reports: Acquiescence, factor structure, coherence, and differentiation from ages 10 to 20. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 718–737.
Storebø, O. J., Skoog, M., Damm, D., Thomsen, P. H., Simonsen, E., & Gluud, C. (2011). Social skills training for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children aged 5 to 18 years. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008223.pub2.
Stringaris, A., Cohen, P., Pine, D., & Leibenluft, E. (2009). Adult outcomes of youth irritability: a 20-year prospective community-based study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(9), 1048–1054.
Surman, C. B., Biederman, J., Spencer, T., Yorks, D., Miller, C. A., Petty, C. R., & Faraone, S. V. (2011). Deficient emotional self-regulation and adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A family risk analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(6), 617–623.
Tacon, A. M., McComb, J., Caldera, Y., & Randolph, P. (2003). Mindfulness meditation, anxiety reduction, and heart disease: a pilot study. Family & Community Health, 26, 25–33.
Tarter, R., Blackson, T., Brigham, J., Moss, H., & Caprara, G. (1995). Precursors and correlates of irritability: A two year follow-up of boys at risk for substance abuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 39, 253–261.
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3, Serial No. 240), 25–52.
Trupin, E. W., Stewart, D. G., Beach, B., & Boesky, L. (2002). Effectiveness of dialectical behaviour therapy program for incarcerated female juvenile offenders. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 7, 121–127.
Turk, C. L., Heimberg, R. G., Luterek, J. A., Mennin, D. S., & Fresco, D. M. (2005). Emotion dysregulation in generalized anxiety disorder: A comparison with social anxiety disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29(1), 89–106.
Tutty, S., Gephart, H., & Wurzbacher, K. (2003). Enhancing behavioral and social skill functioning in children newly diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in a pediatric setting. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 24, 51–57.
van de Weijer-Bergsma, E., Formsma, A. R., de Bruin, E. I., & Bögels, S. M. (2011). The effectiveness of mindfulness training on behavioral problems and attentional functioning in adolescents with ADHD. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(5), 775–787.
Van der Oord, S., Bögels, S. M., & Peijnenburg, D. (2012). The effectiveness of mindfulness training for children with ADHD and mindful parenting for their parents. Journal of child and family studies, 21(1), 139–147.
Vasilev, C. A., Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., Mead, H. K., & Gatzke-Kopp, L. M. (2009). Correspondence between physiological and self-report measures of emotion dysregulation: A longitudinal investigation of youth with and without psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1357–1364.
Verdejo-García, A., Bechara, A., Recknor, E. C., & Pérez-García, M. (2007). Negative emotion-driven impulsivity predicts substance dependence problems. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 91(2), 213–219.
Waite, R. (2007). Women and attention deficit disorders: A great burden overlooked. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 19(3), 116–125.
Walden, T. A., Harris, V. S., & Catron, T. F. (2003). How I feel: A self-report measure of emotional arousal and regulation for children. Psychological Assessment, 15(3), 399–412.
Waxmonsky, J., Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, E., Cummings, M. R., O’Connor, B., Majumdar, A., et al. (2008). The efficacy and tolerability of methylphenidate and behavior modification in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and severe mood dysregulation. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 18(6), 573–588.
Waxmonsky, J. G., Wymbs, F. A., Pariseau, M. E., Belin, P. J., Waschbusch, D. A., Babocsai, L., et al. (2013). A novel group therapy for children with ADHD and severe mood dysregulation. Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/1087054711433423.
Webb, T., Miles, E., & Sheeran, P. (2012). Dealing with feeling: Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from process model of emotion regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 138(4), 775–808.
Wei, M., Heppner, P. P., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2003). Perceived coping as a mediator between attachment and psychological distress: A structural equation modeling approach. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 438–447.
Wei, M., Vogel, D. L., Ku, T. Y., & Zakalik, R. A. (2005). Adult attachment, affect regulation, negative mood, and interpersonal problems: The mediating roles of emotional reactivity and emotional cutoff. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(1), 14–24.
Weinberg, A., & Klonsky, E. D. (2009). Measurement of emotion dysregulation in adolescents. Psychological Assessment, 21, 616–621.
Weiss, G., Hechtman, L., Milroy, T., & Perlman, T. (1985). Psychiatric status of hyperactives as adults: A controlled prospective 15-year follow-up of 63 hyperactive children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24(2), 211–220.
Weiss, N. H., Tull, M. T., Viana, A. G., Anestis, M. D., & Gratz, K. L. (2012). Impulsive behaviors as an emotion regulation strategy: Examining associations between PTSD, emotion dysregulation, and impulsive behaviors among substance dependent inpatients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26(3), 453–458.
Whiteside, S. P., & Lynam, D. R. (2001). The five factor model and impulsivity: Using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 669–689.
Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., Brown, S., Tanguay, S., Monuteaux, M. C., Blake, C., & Spencer, T. J. (2002). Psychiatric comorbidity and functioning in clinically referred preschool children and school-age youths with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(3), 262–268.
Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., & Mick, E. (1998). Does ADHD affect the course of substance abuse?: Findings from a sample of adults with and without ADHD. The American Journal on Addictions, 7(2), 156–163.
Willcutt, E., Sonuga-Barke, E., Nigg, J., & Sergeant, J. (2008). Recent developments in neuropsychological models of childhood psychiatric disorders. Biological Child Psychiatry, 24, 195–226.
Winters, K. C., Botzet, A. M., Fahnhorst, T., Baumel, L., & Lee, S. (2009). Impulsivity and its relationship to risky sexual behaviors and drug use. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Use, 18(1), 43–56.
Wise, T. N., Mann, L. S., & Randell, P. (1995). The stability of alexithymia in depressed patients. Psychopathology, 28(4), 173–176.
Wolraich, M. L., Wibbelsman, C. J., Brown, T. E., Evans, S. W., Gotlieb, E. M., Knight, J. R., et al. (2005). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among adolescents: a review of the diagnosis, treatment, and clinical implications. Pediatrics, 115(6), 1734–1746.
Wymbs, B. T., Dawson, A. E., Suhr, J. A., Bunford, N., & Gidycz, C. A. (in press). ADHD symptoms as risk factors for intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization among men and women in college. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. doi:10.1177/0886260515586371.
Wymbs, B. T., Molina, B., Pelham, W., Cheong, J., Gnagy, E., Belendiuk, K., et al. (2012). Risk of intimate partner violence among young adult males with childhood ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/1087054710389987.
Zalecki, C. A., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2004). Overt and relational aggression in girls with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(1), 125–137.
Zylowska, L., Ackerman, D. L., Yang, M. H., Futrell, J. L., Horton, N. L., Hale, T. S., et al. (2008). Mindfulness meditation training in adults and adolescents with ADHD: A feasibility study. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11, 737–746.
Acknowledgments
During the preparation of this article, the first author was supported in parts by the Elizabeth Munsterberg Koppitz Dissertation Fellowship, awarded by the American Psychological Foundation. The second author was supported in parts by grants from the Institute of Educational Sciences (R324A120003; R324A120272; R305A140356). The contents of this article do not necessarily represent the views of the American Psychological Foundation or Institute for Education Sciences and do not imply endorsement by the federal government. We would like to thank Dr. Seán T. MacDermott for sharing unpublished data.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bunford, N., Evans, S.W. & Wymbs, F. ADHD and Emotion Dysregulation Among Children and Adolescents. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 18, 185–217 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0187-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0187-5