Abstract
In two studies, kindergarteners participated in a series of staged events immediately preceded by pre-event interactions that were designed to identify factors relevant to improving recall. The events were based on preschool science-related activities and the experimental pre-event involved predicting actions to occur during a target event, manipulating types of cues available to support these predictive inferences. Action prediction did improve free recall, and effects may have influenced attentional processes evoked by actions generated and enacted. Although children effectively used outcome cues to predict actions, a one-to-one relation between pre-event action prediction patterns and recall did not occur. In combination with other findings, this result may suggest that increased attention during the target event may have supported the pre-event effect rather than integration of information between the pre-event and target event. Early childhood teachers engaging children in science activities should provide explicit cues to enhance usefulness of preparatory activities for recall.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Atance CM, Hanson LK (2011) Making predictions: a developmental perspective. In: Bar M (ed) Predictions in the brain: using our past to generate a future. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 311–366
Badinlou F, Kormi-Nouri R, Nasab HM, Knopf M (2017) Developmental differences in episodic memory across school ages: Evidence from enacted events performed by self and others. Memory 25(1):89–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2015.1126607
Badinlou F, Kormi-Nouri R, Knopf M (2018) Action memory and knowledge-based cuing in school-aged children: the effect of object presentation and semantic integration. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 186:118–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.04.011
Baker-Ward L, Hess TM, Flanagan DA (1990) The effects of involvement on children’s memory for events. Cogn Dev 5(1):55–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/0855-2014(90)90012-1
Baker-Ward L, Quinonez R, Milano M, Lee S, Langley H, Brumley B, Ornstein PA (2015) Predicting children’s recall of a dental procedure: contributions of stress, preparation, and dental history. Appl Cogn Psychol 29:775–781
Bauer PJ (1992) Holding it all together: How enabling relations facilitate young children’s event recall. Cogn Dev 7(1):1–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/0885-2014(92)90002-9
Bauer PJ (2006) Event memory. In: Kuhn D, Siegler R. Volume editors: volume 2—cognition, perception, and language, Damon W, Lerner RM (Editors-in-Chief) Handbook of child psychology, sixth edn. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 373–425, https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0209
Bauer PJ (2013) Memory. In: Zelazo PD (ed) The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology. Body and mind, vol 1. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 505–541
Bauer PJ, Doydum AO, Pathman T, Larkina M, Guler OE, Burch M (2012) It’s all about location, location, location: children’s memory for the “where” of personally experienced events. J Exp Child Psychol 113:510–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.06.007
Bell P, Lewnstein B, Shouse AW, Feder MA (eds) (2009) Learning science in informal environments: people, places, and pursuits. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC
Boland AM, Haden CA, Ornstein PA (2003) Boosting children’s memory by training mothers in the use of an elaborative conversational style as an event unfolds. J Cogn Dev 4(1):39–65. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327647JCD4,1-02
Brod G, Hasselhorn M, Bunge SA (2018) When generating a prediction boosts learning: the element of surprise. Learn Instr 55:22–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruct.2018.01.013
Dejonckheere PJ, De Wit N, Van de Keere K, Vervaet S (2016) Exploring the classroom: Teaching science in early childhood. Int Electron J Elem Educ 8(4):537–558
Early DA, Iruka IU, Ritchie S, Barbarin OA, Winn DC, Crawford GM, Frome PM et al (2010) How do pre-kindergarteners spend their time? Gender, ethnicity, and income as predictors of experiences in pre-kindergarten classrooms. Early Child Res Q 25(2):177–193
Fivush M, Kuebli J, Clubb PA (1992) The structure of events and event representations: a developmental analysis. Child Dev 63(1):188–201
Foley MA, Ratner HH (2001) The role of action-based structures in activity memory. In: Zimmer HD, Cohen RL, Guynn MJ, Engelkamp J, Kormi-Nouri R, Foley MA (eds) Memory for action: A distinct form of episodic memory? Counterpoint Series. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 155–188
Gee S, Pipe M-E (1995) Helping children to remember: the influence of object cues on children’s account of a real event. Dev Psychol 31(5):746–758. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.5.746
Ghetti S, Lyons KE, DeMaster D (2012) The development of episodic memory: binding processes, controlled processes, and introspection on memory states. In: Ghetti S, Bauer PJ (eds) Origins and development of recollection: perspectives from psychology and neuroscience. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 144–167
Gopnik A, Brenneman K, Macdonald G, Roman M (2010) Preschool pathways to science. Paul H. Brookes, Baltimore
Haden CA, Ornstein PA, Eckerman CO, Didow SM (2001) Mother–child conversational interactions as events unfold: linkages to subsequent remembering. Child Dev 72(4):1016–1031. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00332
Holliday R, Hayes B (2002) Automatic and intentional processes in children’s recognition memory: the reversed misinformation effect. Appl Cogn Psychol 16(1):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.789
Howe M (2015) Memory development. In: Lerner RM (Editor-in Chief), Liben LS, Muller U (Vol. Eds.) Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, volume 2, cognitive processes, 7th edn 9. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 203–249
Hudson JA, Grysman A (2014) Extending the life of a memory: effects of reminders on children’s long-term event memory. In: Bauer PJ, Fivush R (eds) The Wiley handbook on the development of children’s memory, vol I/II. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, pp 255–284. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118597705.ch12
Inagaki K, Hatano G (1977) Amplication of cognitive motivation and its effects on epistemic observation. Am Educ Res J 14(4):485–491. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312014004485
Jant E, Haden CA, Uttal DH, Babcock E (2014) Conversation and object manipulation influence children’s learning in a museum. Child Dev 85(5):2029–2045. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12252
Johnson JL, McWilliams K, Goodman GS, Shelley AE, Piper B (2016) Basic principles of interviewing the child eyewitness. In: O’Donohue WT, Fanetti M (eds), pp 179–195. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21097-1-10
Kormi-Nouri R (2000) The role of movement and object in action memory: a comparative study between blind, blindfolded and sighted subjects. Scand J Psychol 41(1):71–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9450.00173
Lehrer R, Schauble L (2015) The development of scientific thinking. In: Lerner RM (Editor-in Chief), Liben LS, Muller U (Vol. eds) Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, volume 2, cognitive processes, 7th edn 9. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 671–714
Leichtman MB, Camilleri KA, Pillemer DB, Amato-Wierda CC, Hogan JE, Dongo MD (2017) Talking after school: parents’ conversational styles and children’s memory for a science lesson. J Exp Child Psychol 156:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2016.11.002
Leinhardt G, Crowley K, Knutson K (eds) (2002) Learning conversations in museums. Erlbaum, Mahwah
Loucks J, Mutschler C, Meltzoff AN (2016) Children’s representation and imitation of events: how goal organization influences 3-year-old children’s memory for action sequences. Cogn Sci 41(7):1904–1933. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12446
Macleod E, Gross J, Hayne H (2016) Drawing conclusions: the effect of instructions on children’s confabulation and fantasy errors. Memory 24(1):21–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2014.982656
Mahy CEV, Moses LJ, Kliegel M (2014) The development of prospective memory in children: an executive framework. Dev Rev 34:305–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2014.08.001
Matlen BJ, Klahr D (2013) Sequential effects of high and low instructional guidance on children’s acquisition of experimentation skills: Is it all in the timing? Instr Sci 41:621–634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-012-9248-z
McGuigan F, Salmon K (2004) The time to talk: the influence of the timing of adult–child talk on children’s event memory. Child Dev 75:669–686. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00700.x
McGuigan F, Salmon K (2005) Pre-event discussion and recall of a novel event: how are children best prepared? J Exp Child Psychol 91:342–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2005.03.006
Miller P (2014) The history of memory development research. In: Bauer PJ, Fivush R (eds) The Wiley handbook on the development of children’s memory, vol I. Wiley, New York, pp 19–40
Murachver T, Pipe M-E, Gordon R, Owens JL, Fivush R (1996) Do, show, and tell: children’s event Memories acquired through direct experience, observation, and stories. Child Dev 67(6):3029–3044. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01901.x
Naito M, Suzuki T (2011) “When did i learn and when shall i act?” the developmental relationship between episodic future thinking and memory. J Exp Child Psychol 109(4):397–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2011.03.005
Nelson K (1986) Event knowledge: Structure and function in development. Erlbaum, Hillsdale
Pearce JM, Hall C (1980) A model for Pavlovian learning: variations in the effectiveness of condition but not unconditioned stimuli. Psychol Rev 87:532–552. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.87.6.532
Prabhakar J, Hudson J (2014) The development of future thinking: young children’s ability to construct event sequences to achieve future goals. J Exp Child Psychol 127:95–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2014.02.004
Price DWW, Goodman GS (1990) Visiting the wizard: children’s memory for a recurring event. Child Dev 61:664–680. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1990.tb02810.x
Principe GF, DiPuppo J, Gammel J (2013) Effects of mothers’ conversation style and receipt of misinformation on children’s event reports. Cogn Dev 28:260–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2013.01.012
Ratner HH (1984) Memory demands and the development of memory in young children. Child Dev 55:2173–2191. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129790
Ratner HH, Smith B, Padgett R (1990) Children’s organization of events and event memories. In: Fivush R, Hudson J (eds) Knowing and remembering in young children. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 65–93
Ratner HH, Foley MA, McCaskill P (2001) Understanding children’s activity memory: The role of outcomes. J Exp Child Psychol 79:162–191. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.2000.2585
Ricco RB (2015) The development of reasoning. In: Lerner RM (Editor-in Chief), Liben LS, Muller U (Vol. eds) Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, volume 2, cognitive processes, 7th edn. 9. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 519–570
Salmon K, Reese E (2015) Talking (or not talking) about the past: the influence of parent–child conversation about negative experiences on children’s memories. Appl Cogn Psychol 29:791–801. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3186
Salmon K, Yao J, Bernsten O, Pipe M-E (2007) Does providing prompts during preparation help children to remember a novel event? J Exp Child Psychol 97(2):99–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2007.01.001
Salmon K, Champion F, Pipe M-E, Mewton L, McDonald S (2008) The child in time: the influence of parent-child discussion about a future event on how it is remembered. Memory 16:485–499. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210802036112
Salmon K, Mewton L, Pipe M-E, McDonald S (2011) Asking parents to prepare children for an event: altering parental instruction influences children’s recall. J Exp Child Psychol 12:80–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2010.496708
Stahl A, Feigenson L (2015) Observing the unexpected enhances infants’ learning and exploration. Science 348:91–94. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa3799
Stahl A, Feigenson L (2017) Expectancy violations promote learning in young children. Cognition 163:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2017.02.008
Sutherland R, Pipe M-E, Schick K, Murray J, Gobbo C (2003) Knowing in advance: the impact of prior event information on memory and event knowledge. J Exp Child Psychol 84:244–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0965(03)00021-3
Tuttle N, Mentzer GA, Strickler L, Bloomquist D, Hapgood S, Molitor S, Kaderavek J, Czerniak CM (2017) Exploring how families do science together: adult–child interactions at community science events. School Sci Math 117(5):175–182. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssm.12221
Warren K, Peterson C (2014) Exploring parent–child discussions of crime and their influence on children’s memory. Behav Sci Law 32(6):686–701. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2144
Funding
Funding was provided by Wayne State University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that we have no conflicts of interest and have followed all ethical research practices.
Ethical approval
All procedures performed in the studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Behavioral Institutional Review Board, a committee of the university’s Institutional Review Board and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendices
Appendix 1
Examples of actions defining and materials used in a preserved and transformed event.
Preserved event
Outcome: make a kazoo
Materials: pencil, tissue tube, rubber band, wax paper, staple remover, cellophane tape, tissue paper
-
1.
Tear off piece of tape.
-
2.
Put tape on child’s hand.
-
3.
Wrap tube in tissue paper.
-
4.
Tape the tissue paper.
-
5.
Press staple remover into tube to make hole.
-
6.
Push the pencil through the hole to make the hole bigger.
-
7.
Put the wax paper on the end of the tube.
-
8.
Put the rubber band around the tube.
Transformed event
Outcome: make a fingerprint
Materials: glass disk, strainer, glove, charcoal, Chapstick, paper plate
-
1.
Rub the Chapstick on the end of the finger.
-
2.
Rub the finger and thumb together.
-
3.
Place the finger in the middle of the glass disk.
-
4.
Put the glass disk on the paper plate.
-
5.
Put the strainer over the glass disk.
-
6.
Put on the glove.
-
7.
Rub the charcoal over the strainer.
-
8.
Blow away the charcoal dust.
Event action coding
Pre-event actions
To be coded as a match the predicted action needed to include a complete and specific action, the same process for a tool or object used in the actual action, and achieve the same outcome as an actual action. For the kazoo, for example, a match would be “put the wax paper on the end of the tube,” but “put the tissue on the end of the tube” would be a mismatch. Or for the clay, “put the salt in the bowl,” would be a match, but “mix the salt and flour in the cup,” would be a mismatch. Nonspecific actions such as “you use the tissue” or object references, such as “the bowl” were not counted as a match or a mismatch and were not included. A second coder independently coded 25% of the protocols. Dividing the number of agreements by the sum of agreements and disagreements yielded a reliability score of 88%. Disagreements were resolved through discussion.
Recall
Event actions recalled that described the outcome achieved and the process used to achieve it were scored as accurate. Actions that were inaccurate were infrequent and dropped from the coding process. A second coder independently coded 40% of the recall protocols. The recall reliability measure, calculated in the same way as the Action Prediction pre-event score, was 91.5%.
Appendix 2
See Table 3.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ratner, H.H., Foley, M.A. & Lesnick, C.S. Kindergarten children’s event memory: the role of action prediction in remembering. Cogn Process 20, 227–241 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-018-00900-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-018-00900-z