Abstract
Many recognize the role of public policy in catalyzing action to address climate change. Attention has turned to theories of policy change, focusing on agents and their activities. Less clear, however, is the relationship between effective policy change and the actors, their context, and their strategies. We therefore ask: to what extent do kinds of policy actors, institutional settings, and policy entrepreneurial strategies influence policy change? Drawing from experiences in a subnational jurisdiction in the Canadian Arctic (Northwest Territories), the following findings emerged. Firstly, policy change occurred due to the efforts of a wide-ranging collective of policy actors. We further suggest that more attention focus upon the structures in which they operate. These aspects include modern treaty and devolution agreements; mechanisms that provide people with opportunities to engage within policy formulation processes; attempts at incorporating alternative viewpoints; dispersed communities; and experience with decentralized electricity. In addition, by attempting to align strategies with features unique to the region help foster policy change. These strategies included capitalizing on focusing events (e.g., low water levels affecting one of the hydro-based electricity systems in a populace with a heightened awareness of climate change); issue linking (climate change, energy security, self-reliance); fostering networks involving insiders and outsiders and in a decentralized fashion; and utilizing a promising venue (an energy charrette). In essence, a key feature of the region is that many features are in a state of flux. We posit that these open or fluid systems are ecologies in which policy entrepreneurship can possibly thrive.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The term charrette comes from architecture and is typically used in the designing phase in which to solicit views by those affected by bringing together a variety of stakeholders including planners, engineers, construction firms, community members, neighborhood associations, etc. It is an intense workshop where participants work together to design ways in which to address priorities identified by these groups. NWT also conducted an energy charrette in 2012. Other jurisdictions have also undertaken charrettes, such as Yukon’s Energy Charrette in 2011 and the design charrette as a part of the Health Homes initiative in Nunatsiavut, in the Eastern Canadian Arctic. See http://www.yukonenergy.ca/energy-in-yukon/public-engagement/2011-energy-charrette/,http://www.arcticinspirationprize.ca/laureates/2013laureates.php and https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/public-participation-guide-charrettes.
Personal communication, focus group sessions and informal discussions, energy sector informants, November–December 2014.
Indigenous groups in NWT include Cree, Gwich’in, Inuvialuit (Inuit from the western Canadian Arctic), Metis, and Dene (Kennedy-Dalseg and Abele 2015).
Personal communication Andrew Stewart, NT Energy and Michael Miltenberger, former Minister of Environment and Natural Resources, NWT, November 2014.
For further information see http://www.nwtwaterstewardship.ca/transboundary.
Personal communication, focus group sessions and informal discussions, energy sector informants, November–December 2014.
Personal communications, Focus Group session, November 2014 and phone interview, January 2015.
Presentation, Liezl Van Wyk, Diavik, NWT Energy Charrette, November 5, 2014.
Anonymous, Personal Interview, January 2015.
Government official, Focus Group Interview, Yellowknife, November 2014.
For instance, when asked if the drop in oil prices in late 2014 would halt efforts advancing renewable energy options for electricity, we were told that these times (increased forest fires, less predictability about water and precipitation levels, a desire to change the source of electricity, and heightened concerns about climate change) were the “new normal” (Miltenberger 2016).
Personal communication, focus group sessions and informal discussions, November–December 2014.
Ibid.
We acknowledge Les Pal for using this turn of phrase.
Personal communication, focus group sessions and informal discussions, November–December 2014.
References
Abele F, Prince M (2006) Four pathways to aboriginal self-government in Canada. Am Rev Can Stud 36:568–595. https://doi.org/10.1080/02722010609481408
Adams M, Wheeler D, Woolston G (2011) A participatory approach to sustainable energy strategy development in a carbon-intensive jurisdiction: the case of Nova Scotia. Energy Policy 39:2550–2559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.02.022
Anderton K, Setzer J (2017) Subnational climate entrepreneurship: innovative climate action in California and São Paulo. Reg Environ Chang:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1160-2
Arctic Energy Alliance (AEA) (2014) Alternative Energy Technologies Program-Arctic Energy Alliance-Programs. http://aea.nt.ca/programs/alternative-energy-technologies-program. Accessed February 2, 2015
Asch M, Dacks G (1985) The relevance of consociation to Western Northwest Territories. In: Ivenson S (ed) Partners for the Future: a selection of papers related to constitutional development in the Western Northwest Territories. Western Constitutional Forum, Yellowknife
Atkinson K (2004) Sustainable futures for the Arctic north. In: Purvis M, Grainger A (eds) Exploring sustainable development: geographical perspectives. Earthscan, London, p 239
Auld G, Mallett A, Burlica B, Nolan-Poupart F, Slater R (2014) Evaluating the effects of policy innovations: lessons from a systematic review of policies promoting low-carbon technology. Glob Environ Chang 29:444–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.03.002
Aurora Research Institute (ARI), (2015) Evaluating renewable wind energy potential in the NWT. nwtresearch.com/projects/energy/wind-and-solar-energy-potential. Accessed January 30, 2016
Boasson E (2015) Climate policy entrepreneurship. Workshop Presentation, Innovations in Climate Governance, Amsterdam, May 18, 2015
Brouwer S, Huitema D (2017) Policy entrepreneurs and strategies for change. Reg Environ Chang 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1139-z
Burke B, Ferguson M (2010) Going alone or moving together: Canadian and American middle tier strategies on climate change. Publius 40:436–459. https://doi.org/10.1093/publius/pjq012
Caine K, Salomons MJ, Simmons D (2007) Partnerships for social change in the Canadian north: revisiting the insider–outsider dialectic. Dev Chang 38:447–471. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2007.00419.x
Cameron E, Levitan T (2014) Impact and benefit agreements and the neoliberalization of resource governance and indigenous-state relations in northern Canada. Stud Polit Econ 93(1):25–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/19187033.2014.11674963
Church M (2014). Pellet mill project leaps closer to fruition. Northern Journal Yellowknife, NWT, Canada. http://norj.ca/2014/05/pellet-mill-project-leaps-closer-to-production-launch/. Accessed January 26, 2015
Cohen N, Naor M (2017) Entrepreneurial failure in the transition to electric vehicles: a case study of support for sustainability policy in Israel. Policy Soc 36:595–610. https://doi.org/10.1080/14494035.2017.1369678
Dacks G (1990) Political and constitutional development in the Yukon and Northwest Territories: the influence of devolution. North Rev 5:103–130
Devine-Wright P (2010) From backyards to places: public engagement and the emplacement of renewable energy technologies. In: Devine-Wright P (ed) Renewable energy and the public: from NIMBY to participation. Earthscan, London, pp 57–80
Dickerson M (1992) Whose north? Political change, political development, and self-government in the northwest territories. University of British Columbia (UBC) Press, Vancouver
Dunbar, S (2008) Seeking unanimous consent: consensus government in the Northwest Territories. Master’s thesis, Carleton University, Department of Political Science
NT Energy (2013). A vision for the NWT power system plan. Government of Northwest Territories. http://www.iti.gov.nt.ca/publications/vision-nwt-power-system-plan-december-2013. Accessed February 28, 2016
Flannigan M, Cantin AS, de Groot WJ, Wotton M, Newbery A, Gowman LM (2013) Global wildland fire season severity in the 21st century. For Ecol Manag 294:54–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.10.022
Fligstein N, McAdam D (2012) A theory of fields. Oxford University Press, New York
Ford J, Smit B, Wandel J, Allurut M, Shappa K, Ittusarjuat H, Qrunnut K (2008) Climate change in the Arctic: current and future vulnerability in two Inuit communities in Canada. Geogr J 174(1):45–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4959.2007.00249.x
Foxon T, Reed M, Stringer L (2009) Governing long-term social-ecological change: what can the adaptive management and transition management approaches learn from each other? Environ Policy Gov 19:3–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.496
Gordon Foundation (2015) Rethinking the top of the world: Arctic public opinion survey, volume 2. Munk-Gordon Arctic Security Program. https://www.gordonfoundation.ca.
Irlbacher-Fox S (2009) Finding Dahshaa: self government, social suffering and aboriginal policy in Canada. UBC Press, Vancouver
Irlbacher-Fox S (2013) A partnership opportunity missed: the Northwest Territories devolution and resource revenue sharing agreement. In: Papillon M, Juneau A (eds) State of the Federation. IIGR, McGill-Queens University Press, Kingston
Judd E (2013) Building a wind farm in Arctic conditions: Rio Tinto’s Diavik mine. Canadian Clean Energy Conferences http://friendsofwind.ca/building-a-wind-farm-in-arctic-conditions-rio-tintos-diavik-mine/. Accessed November 21, 2014
Kennedy-Dalseg S, Abele F (2015) Language, distance and democracy: development decision making and northern communications. North Rev 41:207–240
Kenney L, Bessette D, Arvai J (2014) Structuring decisions about energy in developing communities: an example from Canada's north. J Environ Plan Manag 58:855–873. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2014.899205
King H (2013) New treaties, same old dispossession: a critical assessment of land and resource management regimes in the north. In: Papillon M, Juneau A (eds) State of the Federation. IIGR, McGill-Queens University Press, Kingston
Kingdon J (2011) Agendas, alternatives and public policies. Updated 2nd edition. Harper Collins, New York
Knowles J (2016) Power shift: electricity for Canada’s remote communities. The Conference Board of Canada, Ottawa
Kulchyski P, Bernauer W (2014) Modern treaties, extraction, and imperialism in Canada’s indigenous north: two case studies. Stud Polit Econ 93(1):3–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/19187033.2014.11674962
Mallett A (2013) Technology cooperation for sustainable energy—a review of pathways. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Energy Environ 2:234–250. https://doi.org/10.1002/wene.54
Marshall R and Associates (2014) Report on the 2014 NWT energy charrette: Final report. Yellowknife: Government of the NWT
McFadden J (2015) Power consumers bailed out again: GNWT gives almost $30 million to power corp to keep rates from rising because of excess diesel use. Northern News Service, September 4, 2015. http://www.nnsl.com/frames/newspapers/2015-09/sep4_15pow.html. Accessed on February 17, 2016
McLaren A (2014). 2014 Northwest Territories Energy Charrette-Economics of Energy in the NWT. http://www.iti.gov.nt.ca/sites/default/files/andrew_mclaren_0.pdf. Accessed on December 23, 2014
Meijerink S, Huitema D (2010) Policy entrepreneurs and change strategies: lessons from sixteen case studies of water transitions around the globe. Ecol Soc 15(2):21. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-03509-150221
Miltenberger M (2016) Personal communication. June 22, 2016
Mintrom M (1997) Policy entrepreneurs and the diffusion of innovation. Am J Polit Sci 41:738–770. https://doi.org/10.2307/2111674
Mintrom M, Norman P (2009) Policy entrepreneurship and policy change. Policy Stud J 37(4):649–667. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.2009.00329.x
Nadasdy P (2003a) Re-evaluating the co-management success story. Arctic 56(4):367–380 doi: 10.14430/arctic634
Nadasdy P (2003b) Hunters and bureaucrats: power, knowledge, and aboriginal-state relations in the Southwest Yukon. UBC Press, Vancouver
North D (1990) Institutions, institutional change and economic performance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Northwest Territories (NWT), Government. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. (2014). Application guidelines for the community renewable energy program. Programs. http://www.enr.gov.nt.ca/sites/default/files/community_renewable_energy_program_guidelines.pdf. Accessed January 26, 2015
Northwest Territories (NWT), Government. Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). (2012). Northwest Territories solar energy strategy 2012–2017. Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency–Solar. http://www.enr.gov.nt.ca/sites/default/files/strategies/solar_energy_strategy_2012-2017.pdf. Accessed January 18, 2015
Northwest Territories (NWT), Government of. Department of Land and Resources (2013) Northwest territories lands and resources devolution agreement. Government of Canada, Government of the Northwest Territories, the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation, the Northwest Territories (NWT) Metis National, the Sahtu Scretariat Incorporated, the Gwich’in Tribal Council, the Tlicho Government
Northwest Territories, Government of (GNWT) (2008) A review of electricity regulation, rates and subsidy programs in the Northwest territories, December 2008. Yellowknife, NWT
Northwest Territories (NWT), Government, Department of Municipal and Community Affairs (2009) Canada-northwest territories gas tax fund: outcome report. Government of Northwest Territories, Yellowknife
Northwest Territories (NWT), Department of Public Works and Services (2014) Public works and services energy conservation projects 2013–2014. Department of Public Works and Services-Publications: Yellowknife, NT. http://www.pws.gov.nt.ca/sites/pws/files/2013-14_pws_energy_conservation_projects_-_annual_report.pdf. Accessed 26 Jan 2015
Northwest Territories Bureau of Statistics (StatsNWT) (2016a) www.statsnwt.ca
Northwest Territories Bureau of Statistics (StatsNWT) (2016b) Community data https://www.statsnwt.ca/community-data/index.html
Ockwell D, Watson J, MacKerron G, Pal P, Yamin F (2008) Key policy considerations for facilitating low carbon technology transfer to developing countries. Energy Policy 36:4104–4115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.06.019
Pal L (2013) Beyond policy analysis (BPA): policy making in turbulent times 5th edition. Nelson Education, Toronto
Perrin A (2015) Costing adaptation for community housing and infrastructure in two northern communities. Presentation, ArcticNet, Vancouver, BC, December 9, 2015
Rapinski M, Payette F, Sonnentag O, Herrmann TM, Royer M-JS, Cuerrier A, Siegwart Collier L, Hermanutz L, Guanish G, Elders of Kawawachikamach, Elders of Kangiqsualujjuaq, Elders of Nain (2018) Listening to Inuit and Naskapi peoples in the eastern Canadian Subarctic: a quantitative comparison of local observations with gridded climate data. Reg Environ Change 18:189–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1188-3
Rendell M (2014) Q&A Premier MacLeod on the NWT’s Quest for Renewable Energy, EdgeNorth, November 10, 2014. https://edgenorth.ca/article/603-feature-q038a-premier-mcleod-on-the-nwts-quest-for-renewable-energy. Accessed February 17, 2016
Semeniuk I (2014) What wildfires in the Northwest Territories say about climate change. The Globe and Mail, July 14, 2014. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/what-wildfires-in-the-northwest-territories-say-about-climate-change/article19606467/%3b/. Accessed December 23, 2014
Statham S, Ford J, Berrang-Ford L, Lardeau M-P, Gough W, Siewierski R (2015) Anomalous climatic conditions during winter 2010–2011 and vulnerability of the traditional Inuit food system in Iqaluit, Nunavut. Polar Rec 51:301–317. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0032247414000151
Stern N (2006) Stern review on the economics of climate change. HM Treasury, London
Walker C, Baxter J (2017) Procedural justice in Canadian wind energy development: a comparison of community-based and technocratic siting processes. Energy Res Soc Sci 29:160–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.05.016
White G (2000) And now for something completely northern: institutions of governance in the territorial north. J Can Stud 35(4):80–99
White G (2008) “Not the almighty”: evaluating Aboriginal influence in Northern Land Claims Boards. Arctic 61(Suppl 1):71–85
Wiles M (2016) N.W.T. wood pellet mill another step closer to reality: Aurora Wood Pellets closes land deal for mill in Enterprise. Canadian Broadcast Corporation (CBC). http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/aurora-wood-pellets-buys-land-in-enterprise-1.3590448. Accessed June 26, 2016
Williams P, Alessa L, Abatzoglou JT, Kliskey A, Witmer F, Lee O, Trammell J, Beaujean G, Venema R (2018) Community-based observing networks and systems in the Arctic: human perceptions of environmental change and instrument-derived data. Reg Environ Change 18(2):547–559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1220-7
Windeyer C (2014) Cheaper power, lower cost of living, like mean more GNWT debt. Edge, October 17, 2014. https://edgenorth.ca/article/508-cheaper-power-lower-cost-of-living-likely-mean-more-gnwt-debt. Accessed January 18, 2015
Wohlberg M (2014). Government bailout puts end to disputed power rate hike across NWT. North J. Yellowknife, NWT, Canada: http://norj.ca/2014/09/government-bailout-puts-end-to-disputed-power-rate-hike-across-the-nwt. Accessed 18 Jan 2015
World Wildlife Fund (WWF) (2016) Fueling change in the arctic: renewable energy solutions for the Canadian arctic. Feasibility Study
Yackel J, Barber DG (2001) Arctic climate change. A case of mounting evidence. In: Oakes J, Riewe R, Bennett M, Chisholm B (eds) Pushing the margins: native and northern studies. Native Studies Press, Winnipeg
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their excellent feedback, as well as David Huitema, Elin Boasson, and Raoul Bruenen, editors of this special issue about climate policy innovations and policy entrepreneurship, and Les Pal, School of Public Policy and Administration (SPPA), Carleton University, for their insights. We are indebted to the numerous individuals who provided their time and expertise through in-person discussions and interviews, our focus group session, telephone discussions, etc. Particularly, we would like to thank the rest of our team for our larger project examining alternative energy in the Canadian Arctic: Stephan Schott, Lawrence Keyte, and Vincent Dufresne. We would also like to thank Polar Knowledge Canada (POLAR) who provided funding for this project. POLAR staff Meaghan Bennett, Michael Brown, and Robert Cooke provided us with many insights throughout this process. We would also like to thank representatives from the Aurora Research Institute, the Arctic Energy Alliance, and Government of Northwest Territories who, in addition to sharing their time and expertise to us via discussions, provided us with the opportunity to participate in the 2014 NWT Energy Charrette. Among others, these individuals include former Minister of Natural Resources and Environment of NWT Michael Miltenberger; Jim Sparling and Wade Carpenter of MNWT; David Nightingale and Kelly Lang-Knox of DITI; Ychao Chen, Leanne Robinson, Steve Ouillet, and Louis Azzolli of AEA; Ashley Mercer of ARI; and Remi Gervais of the City of Yellowknife. We would also like to thank Jessica Wang and the staff at the Yellowknife Inn for assisting us with our focus group session in Yellowknife, NWT. The bulk of primary research from this paper comes from a broader project examining Alternative Energy in the Canadian Arctic, Commissioned by Polar Knowledge Canada (POLAR). See here for larger report: https://curve.carleton.ca/08515c6b-3b39-4c41-ad7b-2c6306cf0379.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mallett, A., Cherniak, D. Views from above: policy entrepreneurship and climate policy change on electricity in the Canadian Arctic. Reg Environ Change 18, 1323–1336 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1317-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1317-7