Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of fall-cone test on classification of soils: some considerations from study of two engineering earthworks in Central Italy

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This work, based on the data of two earthworks recently completed on two sites near Lake Trasimeno (Central Italy), examines the consequences of the enforcement in Europe of the fall-cone test for the Liquid Limit (LLcone) instead of the Casagrande cup (LLcup). This new standard has been incorporated in the latest Italian soil classification (UNI 11531-1:2014), substituting the previous one (UNI 10006:2002). A set of 28 soil samples was analysed: the research shows that LLcone is always greater than LLcup. According to the old standard, all samples were suitable for the works planned but, according to the new one, 18 % of samples became unsuitable. This is in spite of the fact that there is nothing to show that the old classification was “unsafe.” The new standard (based on LLcone) restricts the choice of materials, so that not only will costs for earthworks increase in the future but, paradoxically, because of the new standard, thousands of kilometers of properly working old levées became suddenly “unsafe.” The results suggest that soil classification criteria for earthworks should be reconsidered in order to transform the conventional “index properties” to sound physical characteristics.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • AASHTO M145-82 (1993) Standard method of test for the classification of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures for highway construction purposes. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

  • Andrade FA, Al-Qureshi HA, Hotza D (2011) Measuring the plasticity of clays: a review. Appl Clay Sci 51(1–2):1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ASTM D1557-12 (2012) Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbf/ft3 (2700 kN-m/m3)). ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. www.astm.org. doi:10.1520/D1557-12

  • ASTM D422-63(2007)e2 Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils [online]. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. www.astm.org. doi:10.1520/D0422-63R07E02

  • ASTM D3289-08 (2008) Standard test method for density of semi-solid and solid bituminous materials (Nickel Crucible method), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. www.astm.org. doi:10.1520/D3282-08

  • ASTM D4318-10e1 (2010) Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. www.astm.org. doi:10.1520/D4318

  • ASTM D6026-13 (2013) Standard practice for using significant digits in geotechnical data [online]. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. www.astm.org. doi:10.1520/D6026

  • Belviso R, Ciampoli S, Cotecchia V, Federico A (1985) Use of the cone penetrometer to determine consistency limits. Ground Eng 18(5):21–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Bicalho KV, Gramelich JC, Cunha DS (2014) Comparação entre os valores do limite de liquidez obtidos pelos métodos de Casagrande e cone para solos argilosos brasileiros Comparison between Casagrande cup and cone penetrometer test for determining liquid limit of different Brazilian clays. Comunicações Geológicas 101, Especial III, pp 1097–1099

  • Burzigotti R, Dragoni W, Evangelisti C, Gervasi L (2003) The role of lake Trasimeno (Central Italy) in the history of hydrology and water management. In: Proceedings of 3rd IWHA conference, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 11–14 Dec 2003, Alexandria-Egypt, pp 18. Available from http://utenti.unipg.it/dragoni/laghi05/files/2003_trasimeno_a.pdf

  • Calabresi G, Colleselli F, Danese D, Giani G, Mancuso C, Montrasio L, Nocilla A, Pagano L, Reali E, Sciotti A (2013) Research study of the hydraulic behaviour of the Po River embankments. Can Geotech J 50(9):947–960

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell DJ (1975) Liquid limit determination of arable top soils using a drop-cone penetrometer. J Soil Sci 26(3):234–240

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Candio S, Damiani AV, Federico A, Setti M, Veniale F, Vinti G (1992) Caratterizzazione geotecnica e mineralogica di unità argillose dell’Umbria. Geologia Applicata e Idrogeologia XXVII:123–133 (in Italian)

  • Casagrande A (1958) Notes on the design of the liquid limit device. Géotechnique 8(2):84–91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CEN ISO/TS 17892-12 (2004) Geotechnical investigation and testing—Laboratory testing of soil—Part 12: determination of Atterberg limits [online]. European Committee for Standardization. Available from https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:ts:17892:-12:ed-1:v1:en. Accessed 23 March 2015

  • Christaras B (1991) A comparison of the Casagrande and fall cone penetrometer methods for liquid limit determination in marls from Crete, Greece. Eng Geol 31:131–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colleselli F (2003) Stabilità e sicurezza delle arginature fluviali. In: 1th Corso di aggiornamento professionale in Geotecnica e fondazioni, Ferrara (Italy), 10 Feb 2003, pp 32

  • Di Matteo L (2012) Liquid limit of low- to medium-plasticity soils: comparison between Casagrande cup and cone penetrometer test. Bull Eng Geol Environ 71(1):79–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Di Matteo L, Valigi D, Cambi C (2013) Climatic characterization and response of water resources to climate change in limestone areas: some considerations on the importance of geological setting. J Hydrol Eng 18(7):773–779

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dragoni W (1982) Idrogeologia del lago Trasimeno: sintesi, problemi, aggiornamenti. Geografia Fisica Dinamica Quaternaria 5:192–206 (in italian)

    Google Scholar 

  • Dragoni W (1998) Some considerations on climatic changes, water resources and water needs in the Italian region south of the 43°N. In: Issar A, Brown N (eds) Water, environment and society in times of climatic change. Kluwer, Rome, pp 241–271

  • Dragoni W, Prosperini N, Vinti G (2008) Some observations on the procedures for the determination of the liquid limit: an application on Plio-Pleistocenic clayey soils from Umbria region (Italy). Ital J Eng Geol Environ Spec Issue 1:185–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Dragoni W, Melillo M, Giontella C (2012) Bilancio idrico del Lago Trasimeno. In: Martinelli A (ed) Tutela Ambientale del lago Trasimeno. Arpa Umbria book, pp 403. ISBN: 978-88-905920-03 (in Italian)

  • EN ISO 14688-1:2002/A1:2013. Geotechnical investigation and testing—identification and classification of soil—part 1: identification and description, Amendment 1. Available from http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=57690

  • Feng T-W (2004) Using small ring and a fall-cone to determine the plastic limit. J Geotec Geoenviron Eng 130(6):630–635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fojtová L, Marschalko M, Franeková R, Kovář L (2009) Study of compatibility of methods for liquid limit measurement according to Czech State Standard and newly adopted European Standard. GeoSci Eng LV(1):55–68

  • Grønbech G, Nielsen BN, Ibsen LB (2010) Comparison of plasticity index of søvind marl found by use of casagrande cup, fall cone apparatus and loss on ignition. Aalborg: Department of Civil Engineering, Aalborg University (DCE technical reports; no. 87), http://vbn.aau.dk/files/39623167/Comparison%20of%20Plasticity%20Index%20of%20S%C3%B8vind%20Marl%20found%20by%20use%20of%20Casagrande%20Cup,%20Fall%20Cone%20apparatus%20and%20Loss%20on%20Ignition.pdf

  • Grønbech GL, Nielsen BN, Ibsen LB (2011) Comparison of liquid limit of highly plastic clay by means of casagrande and fall cone apparatus. In: Proceedings of the Pan American geotechnical conference, 7 pp

  • Haigh SK (2012) Mechanics of the Casagrande liquid limit test. Can Geotech J 49(9):1015–1023. doi:10.1139/t2012-066

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haigh SK, Vardanega PJ, Bolton MD (2013) The plastic limit of clays. Géotechnique 63(6):435–440

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haque ME, Nairuzzaman M, Sayem HM, Imam MH (2013) Evaluation and variation of Shrinkage parameters of the Madhupur clay samples of Savar and Dhaka and their relation with clay minerals. Bangladesh Geosci J 19:1–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Houlsby GT (1982) Theoretical analysis of the fall cone test. Géotechnique 32(2):111–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jefferson I, Rogers CDF (1998) Liquid limit and the temperature sensitivity of clays. Eng Geol 49(2):95–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koumoto T, Houlsby GT (2001) Theory and practice of the fall cone test. Géotechnique 51(8):701–712

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Legates DR, McCabe GJ (1999) Evaluating the use of “goodness-of-fit” Measures in hydrologic and hydroclimatic model validation. Water Resour Res 35(1):233–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leroeuil S, Le Bihan JP (1996) Liquid limits and fall cones. Can Geotech J 33:793–798

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Medhat F, Whyte IL (1986) An appraisal of soil index tests. Eng Geol Spec Publ 2:317–323

    Google Scholar 

  • Netterberg F (2013) Comments on geotechnical properties of Adapazari silt by E. Arel and A. Önalp in bulletin of engineering geology and the environment (2012) 71:709–720. Bull Eng Geol Environ 72(3–4):629–630

  • Özer M (2009) Comparison of liquid limit values determined using the hard and soft base Casagrande apparatus and the cone penetrometer. Bull Eng Geol Environ 68:289–296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinard MI, Netterberg F (2012) Comparison of test methods and implications on materials selection for road construction. In: Proceedings of 2nd African Community Access Programme (AFCAP 2) conference, Maputo, pp 20

  • Radford TA (2012) Earthworks in Europe. Geological Society, London. Engineering Geology Special Publications, vol 26, pp 1–4

  • Sampson LR, Netterberg F (1984) A cone penetration method for measuring the liquid limits of South African soils. In: Proceedings of 8th regional conference for Africa on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Harare, vol 1, pp 105–114

  • Sampson LR, Netterberg F (1985) The cone penetration index: a simple new soil index test to replace the plasticity index. In: Proceedings of 11th international conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, San Francisco, pp 1041–1048

  • Sherwood PT, Ryley MD (1970) An investigation of a cone penetrometer method for the determination of the liquid limit. Géotechnique 2:203–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spagnoli G (2012) Comparison between Casagrande and drop-cone methods to calculate liquid limit for pure clay. Can J Soil Sci 92(6):859–864

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sridharan A, Nagaraj HB (1999) Absorption water content and liquid limit of soils. Geotech Test J 22(2):127–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sridharan A, Prakash K (1998) Liquid limit and fall cone: discussion. Can Geotech J 35(2):407–408

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sridharan A, Prakash K (2000) Percussion and cone methods of determining the liquid limit of soils: controlling mechanisms. Geotech Test J 23(2):236–244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terzaghi K, Peck RB, Mesri G (1996) Soil mechanics in engineering practice, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York, p 549

    Google Scholar 

  • UNI 10006:2002 Costruzione e manutenzione delle strade—Tecniche di impiego delle terre (in Italian). Ente Italiano di Normazione, http://www.uni.com/

  • UNI 11531-1:2014 Costruzione e manutenzione delle opere civili delle infrastrutture—Criteri per l’impiego dei materiali—Parte 1: Terre e miscele di aggregati non legati (in Italian). Ente Italiano di Normazione. Available from http://store.uni.com/magento-1.4.0.1/index.php/uni-11531-1-2014.html

  • Vardanega PJ, Haigh SK (2014) The undrained strength – liquidity index relationship. Can Geotech J 51(9):1073–1086

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wasti Y, Bezirci MH (1986) Determination of the consistency limits of soils by the fall-cone test. Can Geotech J 23(2):241–246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams AAB, Donaldson G (1980) Building on expansive soils in South Africa. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on expansive soils. Denver, vol 2, pp 834–844

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful for the technical support provided by Giuseppe Vinti, technician of the “Laboratorio di Geologia Applicata” of Perugia University. Special thanks are due to Arch. Enrica Capponi – Managing Director of ISTEDIL (Perugia) — for endorsing the study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Physics and Geology, University of Perugia, Via A. Pascoli snc, 06123, Perugia, Italy

    Lucio Di Matteo, Walter Dragoni, Corrado Cencetti & Agnese Fucsina

  2. Istituto Sperimentale per l’Edilizia S.p.a. (ISTEDIL), Via Pietro Soriano, 5, 06132, Perugia, Italy

    Remo Ricco

Authors
  1. Lucio Di Matteo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Walter Dragoni
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Corrado Cencetti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Remo Ricco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Agnese Fucsina
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lucio Di Matteo.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Di Matteo, L., Dragoni, W., Cencetti, C. et al. Effects of fall-cone test on classification of soils: some considerations from study of two engineering earthworks in Central Italy. Bull Eng Geol Environ 75, 1629–1637 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-015-0808-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-015-0808-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation