Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Still Bay and Howiesons Poort Foraging Strategies: Recent Research and Models of Culture Change

  • Review Article
  • Published:
African Archaeological Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The Still Bay (SB) and Howiesons Poort (HP) industries, endemic to southern Africa and dating to approximately 72–59 ka, have received a great deal of archaeological attention by virtue of their striking patterns of technology and their close association with some of the earliest unambiguously symbolic objects found in southern Africa. This paper reviews recent literature concerning SB and HP lithic assemblages, faunal remains, paleoenvironmental contexts, and chronological information. It argues that SB biface-dominated technology was designed to be multifunctional and to economize lithic raw material, a strategy well-suited to foragers moving frequently across a wide range of ecological zones in which access to resources and prey encounters were unpredictable. In contrast, HP blade-based tools, using backed blades as modular components in compound weapons, were efficient and reliable hunting weapons designed for specific tasks. More costly and difficult to maintain, HP technology resulted from the targeting of known, localized, and seasonal resources through planned logistical forays. We argue that these complicated patterns of innovation represent separate cultural responses to environmental instability during Marine Isotope Stage 4 and demographic pressures in southern Africa at this time. Against the backdrop of environmental and demographic shifts, the emergence of these innovative tools and associated symbolic objects reflects distinct but quintessentially modern cultural behaviors ethnographically associated with risk reduction, reciprocity, and information sharing.

Résumé

Les industries lithiques de Still Bay (SB) et de Howiesons Poort (HP), omniprésentes en Afrique australe et datant approximativement de 75–59 ka, ont reçu beaucoup d’attention de la part des archéologues en raison de leurs patterns technologiques frappant, ainsi qu’à leur association aux plus anciens objets symboliques trouvés dans cette région africaine. Cet article révise la littérature récente portant sur les assemblages lithiques et fauniques, les contextes paléoenvironnementaux, ainsi que les données chronologiques des industries SB et HP. L’article soutient que la technologie SB, dominée par les bifaces, fut créé pour être multifonctionnelle et pour économiser du matériel lithique brut; une stratégie bien adaptée à des groupes de chasseurs-cueilleurs se déplaçant fréquemment à travers différentes zones écologiques, où l'accès aux ressources et au gibier était imprévisible. Inversement, les outils laminaires HP, utilisant des lames supportées comme composants modulaires dans la fabrication d’armes composites, étaient spécifiquement fabriquées pour être des armes de chasse efficaces et fiables. Étant plus coûteuse et difficile à entretenir, la technologie HP fut le résultat d’une adaptation à des ressources bien connues, localisées et saisonnières, procurées le biais d’incursions logistiques planifiées. Nous soutenons que ces innovations technologiques complexes représentent des adaptations culturelles différentes, adaptées à l'instabilité environnementale du Marine Isotope Stage 4, ainsi qu’aux pressions démographiques ayant lieu en Afrique australe à cette période. Relativement à ces pressions environnementales et démographiques, l'émergence de ces outils innovateurs et de ces objets symboliques reflète des comportements distincts, mais parfaitement modernes, qui sont ethnographiquement associés à la réduction de risque, la réciprocité, et l'échange d’informations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. We follow the definition offered by Henshilwood and Marean (2003: 635), that behavioral modernity is “behavior that is mediated by socially constructed patterns of symbolic thinking, actions, and communication that allow for material and information exchange and cultural continuity between and across generations and contemporaneous communities.” For some Paleolithic archeologists, the discovery of early symbolic objects in the African MSA and made by Neanderthals in the European Middle Paleolithic has warranted at minimum a clear decoupling of cultural modernity from biological modernity (Nowell 2010), or it has suggested that aspects of behavioral modernity may not be species-specific (d’Errico et al. 2001). Others have suggested that, as an analytical construct, behavioral modernity is fatally flawed at all epistemological levels and should be abandoned altogether (Shea 2011).

  2. The worked bone pieces at Klasies River have been the subject of controversy and Singer and Wymer (1982) argue that they were intrusive from the LSA remains. This view is also shared by d'Errico and Henshilwood (2007).

  3. However, they are not the earliest examples of symbolic objects currently known. Modified ocher pieces are known from earlier levels at Blombos Cave, perhaps predating 100 ka (Henshilwood et al. 2011). Assefa et al. (2008) describe mollusc shell beads in the MSA of North Africa at Porc Epic cave, dating to around 82 ka, and Vanhaeren et al. (2006) report perforated marine shell beads from North Africa and Israel that may predate 100 ka.

  4. Brooks and colleagues (2006) and Shea (2009) also suggest the use of spear-thrower technology, raising the prospect for Howiesons Poort segments as components of spears thrown with this more effective technology.

  5. Not everyone, however, is convinced by this evidence. For example, Sealy and Galimberti (2011) argue that shellfish sizes were also significantly influence by environmental differences between the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene, noting similar size decreases among non-food shellfish species.

  6. It is also noteworthy that we were able to find seven SB and HP occurrences in a recent review of earlier archaeological surveys in Namibia carried out by geologist Henno Martin and amateur archaeologist Wolfgang Sydow. These also cross-cut a wide range of geographical contexts, including some extremely arid regions.

  7. Such discussions frequently implicate the eruption of the Mt. Toba super volcano (Ambrose 1998).

References

  • Ambrose, S. H. (1998). Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans. Journal of Human Evolution, 34, 623–651.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ambrose, S.H., (2002). Early microlithic industries in sub-Saharan Africa. In R.G Elston S.L. Kuhn (Eds.), Thinking Small: Global Perspectives on Microlithization (pp. 9–29). Arlington: Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, Number 12

  • Ambrose, S. H. (2006). Howiesons Poort lithic raw material procurement patterns and the evolution of modern human behavior: A response to Minichillo (2006). Journal of Human Evolution, 50, 365–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ambrose, S. H., & Lorenz, K. G. (1990). Social and ecological models for the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa. In P. Mellars (Ed.), The Emergence of Modern Humans (pp. 3–33). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrefsky, W. (1998). Lithics: Macroscopic approaches to analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, K., (1991). Experimental archaeology and the denticulate Mousterian, vol. 2. London: Papers of the Institute of Archaeology pp. 2–7, University College.

  • Assefa, Z., Lam, Y. M., & Mienis, H. K. (2008). Symbolic use of terrestrial gastropod Opercula during the Middle Stone Age at Porc-Epic Cave, Ethiopia. Current Anthropology, 49, 746–756.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avery, D. M. (1987). Late Pleistocene coastal environment of the southern Cape Province of South Africa: Micromammals from Klasies River mouth. Journal of Archaeological Science, 14, 405–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avery, D. M. (1992). The environment of early modern humans at Border Cave, South Africa: Micromammalian evidence. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology, 91, 71–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avery, D. M. (1999). A re-appraisal of micromammalian data from South Africa. Quaternary International, 57/58, 175–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Backwell, L., d’Errico, F., & Wadley, L. (2008). Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 1566–1580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bamford, M. K., & Henderson, Z. L. (2003). A reassessment of the wooden fragment from Florisbad, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 30, 637–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bamforth, D. B. (2003). Rethinking the role of bifacial technology in Paleoindian adaptations on the Great Plains. In M. Soressi & H. L. Dibble (Eds.), Multiple approaches to bifacial technologies (pp. 209–228). Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bamforth, D. B. (2009). Projectile points, people, and plains Paleoindian perambulations. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 28, 142–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bamforth, D. B., & Becker, M. (2000). Core/biface ratios, mobility, refitting, and artifact use-lives: A Paleoindian example. Plains Anthropologist, 45, 273–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Matthews, M., Marean, C. W., Jacobs, Z., Karkanas, P., Fisher, E. C., Herries, A. I. R., Brown, K., Williams, H. M., Bernatchez, J., Ayalon, A., & Nilssen, P. J. (2010). A high resolution and continuous isotopic speleothem record of paleoclimate and paleoenvironment from 90 to 53 ka from Pinnacle Point on the south coast of South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29, 2131–2145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartram, L. E. (1997). A comparison of Kua (Botswana) and Hadza (Tanzania) bow and arrow hunting. In H. Knecht (Ed.), Projectile Technology (pp. 321–344). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartram, L. E., & Marean, C. W. (1999). Explaining the “Klasies Pattern”: Kua ethnoarchaeology, the Die Kelders Middle Stone Age archaeofauna, long bone fragmentation and carnivore ravaging. Journal of Archaeological Science, 26, 9–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Yosef, O. (2002). The Upper Paleolithic Revolution. Annual Review of Anthropology, 31, 363–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaumont, P. (1973). Border Cave: A progress report. South African Journal of Science, 69, 41–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Behar, D. M., Villems, R., Soodyall, H., Blue-Smith, J., Pereira, L., Metspalu, E., Scozzari, R., Makkan, H., Tzur, S., & Comas, D. (2008). The dawn of human matrilineal diversity. American Journal of Human Genetics, 82, 1130–1140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Binford, L. R. (1968). Post-Pleistocene adaptations. In L. R. Binford & S. R. Binford (Eds.), New Perpsectives in Archaeology (pp. 313–341). Chicago: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binford, L. R. (1984). Faunal remains from Klasies River Mouth. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binford, L. R. (1986). An Alyawara day: Making men’s knives and beyond. American Antiquity, 51, 547–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Binford, L. R. (2001). Constructing frames of reference: An analytical aethod for archaeological theory building using ethnographic and environmental data sets. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binford, L. R., & O’Connell, J. (1984). An Alyawara day: The stone quarry. Journal of Anthropological Research, 40, 406–432.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binneman, J. N. F. (1994). A unique stone tipped arrowhead from Adam’s Kranz Cave, Eastern Cape. Southern African Field Archaeology, 3, 58–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bleed, P. (1986). The optimal design of hunting weapons. American Antiquity, 51, 737–747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bleed, P. (2002). Cheap, regular and reliable: Implications of design variation in late Pleistocene Japanese microblade technology. In R.G. Elston and S.L. Kuhn (Eds.), Thinking small: Global perspectives on microlithization (pp. 95–102). Arlington: Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 12

  • Bousman, C. B. (2005). Coping with risk: Later Stone Age technological strategies at Blydefontein Rock Shelter, South Africa. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 24, 193–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, A. S., Nevell, L., Yellen, J. E., & Hartman, G. (2006). Projectile technologies of the African Middle Stone Age: Implications for modern human origins. In E. Hovers & S. L. Kuhn (Eds.), Transitions before the transition: Evolution and stability in the Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age (pp. 233–255). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E. T. (2011). Lake Malawi’s response to “megadrought” terminations: Sedimentary records of flooding, weathering and erosion. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology, 303, 120–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. S., Marean, C. W., Herries, A. I. R., Jacobs, Z., Tribolo, C., Braun, D., Roberts, D. L., Meyer, M. C., & Bernatchez, J. (2009). Fire as an engineering tool of early modern humans. Science, 325, 859–862.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cashdan, E. (1985). Coping with risk: Reciprocity among the Basarwa of northern Botswana. Man, 20, 454–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chase, B. M. (2010). South African palaeonvironments during marine oxygen isotope stage 4: A context for the Howiesons Poort and Still Bay industries. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37, 1359–1366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, M., & Valentin, B. (2004). Armatures de projectiles et outils, de la production à l’abandon. In N. Pigeot (Ed.), Les derniers Magdaléniens d’Etiolles: Perspectives culturelles et paléohistoriques. Gallia Prehistoire, XXXVIIe supplement (pp. 107–160). Paris: CNRS Editions.

    Google Scholar 

  • Churchill, S.E. (1993). Weapon technology, prey size selection and hunting methods in modern hunter-gatherers: Implications for hunting in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic. In G.L Peterkin, H.M. Bricker, and P.A. Mellars (Eds.), Hunting and animal exploitation in the Later Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Eurasia (pp 11–24). Washington D.C.: Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 4

  • Clark, J. D. (1970). The Prehistory of Africa. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, J.L. (2009). Testing models on the emergence and nature of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age fauna from Sibudu Cave (South Africa). Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan

  • Clark, J. L. (2011). The evolution of human culture during the later Pleistocene: Using fauna to test models on the emergence and nature of “modern” human behavior. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 30, 273–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, J. L., & Plug, I. (2008). Animal exploitation strategies during the South African Middle Stone Age: Howiesons Poort and post-Howiesons Poort fauna from Sibudu Cave. Journal of Human Evolution, 54, 886–898.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarkson, C. (2010). Regional diversity within the core technology of the Howiesons Poort technocomplex. In S. J. Lycett & P. R. Chauhan (Eds.), New perspectives on old stones: Analytical approaches to Paleolithic technology (pp. 43–49). Dordrecht: Springer.

  • Compton, J. S. (2011). Pleistocene sea-level fluctuations and human evolution on the southern coastal plain of South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews, 30, 506–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conard, N. J. (2008). A critical view of the evidence for a southern African origin of behavioral modernity. Goodwin Series of the South African Archaeological Society, 10, 175–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard, N. J. (2010). Cultural modernity: Consensus or conundrum? Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 107, 7621–7622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico, F., & Henshilwood, C. S. (2007). Additional evidence for bone technology in the southern African Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution, 52, 142–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico, F., Henshilwood, C., & Nilssen, P. (2001). An engraved bone fragment from ca. 75 kyr Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa: Implications for the origin of symbolism and language. Antiquity, 75, 309–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico, F., Henshilwood, C., Vanhaeren, M., & Van Niekerk, K. (2005). Nassarius kraussianus shell beads from Blombos Cave: Evidence for symbolic behaviour in the Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution, 48, 2–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico, F., Vanhaeren, M., & Wadley, L. (2008). Possible shell beads from the Middle Stone Age of Sibudu Cave. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 2675–2685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, I. (1997). The power of pictures. In M. Conkey, O. Soffer, D. Stratmann, & N. G. Jablonski (Eds.), Beyond Art: Pleistocene image and symbol (Vol. 23, pp. 125–159). San Francisco: Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, J., 1979. Guide to archaeological sites in the southern Cape. Occasional Publication of the Department of Archaeology, University of Stellenbosch 1, pp. 1–7.

  • Deacon, H. J. (1983). Another look at the Pleistocene climates of South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 79, 325–328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, H. J. (1989). Late Pleistocene palaeoecology and archaeology in the Southern Cape, South Africa. In P. Mellars & C. B. Stringer (Eds.), The Human Revolution (pp. 547–564). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, H. J. (1995). Two late Pleistocene–Holocene archaeological depositories from the Southern Cape, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 50, 121–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, H. J., & Geleijnse, V. B. (1988). The stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Main Site sequence (Vol. 43, pp. 5–14). Klasies River, South Africa: South African Archaeological Bulletin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, H. J., & Wurz, S. (1996). Klasies River main site, cave 2: A Howiesons Poort occurrence. In G. Pwiti & R. Soper (Eds.), Aspects of African archaeology (pp. 213–220). Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delagnes, A., & Rendu, W. (2011). Shifts in Neandertal mobility, technology and subsistence strategies in western France. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 1771–1783.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dibble, H. L. (1995). Middle Palaeolithic scraper reduction: Background clarification and review of the evidence to date. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2, 299–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dibble, H. L., & Rolland, N. (1992). On assemblage variability in the Middle Palaeolithic of Western Europe, history, perspectives and a new synthesis. In H. L. Dibble & P. Mellars (Eds.), The Middle Palaeolithic: Adaptation, behaviour and variability (pp. 1–28). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

  • Diez-Martin, F., Sanchez, P., Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., Mabulla, A., & Barba, R. (2009). Were Olduvai hominins making butchering tools or battering tools? Analysis of a recently excavated lithic assemblage from BK (Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 28, 274–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Domanski, M., & Webb, J. A. (1992). Effect of heat treatment on siliceous rocks used in prehistoric lithic technology. Journal of Archaeological Science, 19, 601–614.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dusseldorp, G.L. (2012). Tracking the influence of Middle Stone Age technological change on modern human hunting strategies. Quaternary International (in press).

  • Faith, J. T. (2008). Eland, buffalo, and wild pigs: Were Middle Stone Age humans ineffective hunters? Journal of Human Evolution, 55, 24–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feathers, J. K. (2002). Luminescence dating in less than ideal conditions: Case studies from Klasies River main site and Duinefontein, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29, 177–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feathers, J. K., & Bush, D. A. (2000). Luminescence dating of Middle Stone Age Deposits at Die Kelders. Journal of Human Evolution, 38, 91–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, E. C., Bar-Matthews, M., Jerardino, A., & Marean, C. W. (2010). Middle and Late Pleistocene paleoscape modeling along the southern coast of South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29, 1382–1398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flannery, K. V. (1969). Origins and ecological effects of early domestication in Iran and the Near East. In P. J. Ucko & G. W. Dimbleby (Eds.), The Domestication and exploitation of plants and animals (pp. 73–100). London: Duckworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flenniken, J. J., & Raymond, A. W. (1986). Morphological projectile point typology: Replication experimentation and technological analysis. American Antiquity, 51, 603–614.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonder, M. K., Mortensen, H. M., Reed, F. A., de Sousa, A., & Tishkoff, S. A. (2007). Whole-mtDNA genome sequence analysis of ancient African lineages. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 24, 757–768.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, A. J. H., & van Riet Lowe, C. (1929). The Stone-Age cultures of South Africa. Annals of the South African Museum, 27, 1–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greaves, R. D. (1997). Hunting and multifunctional use of bows and arrows: Ethnoarchaeology of technological organization among Pume hunters of Venezuela. In H. Knecht (Ed.), Projectile Technology (pp. 287–320). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grove, M. (2010). Logistical mobility reduces subsistence risk in hunting economies. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37, 1913–1921.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grün, R., & Beaumont, P. B. (2001). Border Cave revisited: A revised ESR chronology. Journal of Human Evolution, 40, 467–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grün, R., Shackleton, N. J., & Deacon, H. J. (1990). Electron spin resonance dating of tooth enamel from Klasies River Mouth Cave. Current Anthropology, 31, 427–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Habu, J. (2004). Ancient Jomon of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hassan, F. A. (1978). Demographic archaeology. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, 1, 49–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayden, B. (1979). Paleolithic reflections: Lithic technology and ethnographic excavations among Australian Aborigines. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henshilwood, C. S. (1997). Identifying the collector: Evidence for human processing of the Cape Dune Mole-Rat, Bathyergus suillus, from Blombos Cave, Southern Cape, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 24, 659–662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henshilwood, C. S., & Marean, C. W. (2003). The origin of modern human behavior. Current Anthropology, 44, 627–651.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henshilwood, C., Sealy, J. C., Yates, R., Cruz-Uribe, K., Goldberg, P., Grine, F. E., Klein, R. G., Poggenpoel, C., Van Niekerk, K., & Watts, I. (2001). Blombos Cave, Southern Cape, South Africa: Preliminary report on the 1992–1999 excavations of the Middle Stone Age levels. Journal of Archaeological Science, 28, 421–448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henshilwood, C. S., d’Errico, F., Vanhaeren, M., van Niekerk, K., & Jacobs, Z. (2004). Middle Stone Age shell beads from South Africa. Science, 304, 404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henshilwood, C. S., d’Errico, F., van Niekerk, K. L., Coquinot, Y., Jacobs, Z., Lauritzen, S. E., Menu, M., & García-Moreno, R. (2011). A 100,000-year-old ochre-processing workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Science, 334, 219–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiscock, P. (1994). Technological responses to risk in Holocene Australia. Journal of World Prehistory, 8, 267–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiscock, P. (2009). Reduction, recycling, and raw material procurement in Western Arnhem Land, Australia. In B. Adams & B. Blades (Eds.), Lithic Materials and Paleolithic Societies (pp. 78–93). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hiscock, P., Clarkson, C., & Mackay, A. (2011). Big debates over little tools: Ongoing disputes over microliths on three continents. World Archaeology, 43, 653–664.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Högberg, A., & Larsson, L. (2011). Lithic technology and behavioural modernity: New results from the Still Bay site, Hollow Rock Shelter, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 61, 133–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, Z., & Roberts, R. G. (2009). Catalysts for Stone Age innovations: What might have triggered two short-lived bursts of technological and behavioral innovation in southern Africa during the Middle Stone Age? Communicative and Integrative Biology, 2, 191–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, Z., Duller, G. A. T., Wintle, A. G., & Henshilwood, C. S. (2006). Extending the chronology of deposits at Blombos Cave, South Africa, back to 140 ka using optical dating of single and multiple grains of quartz. Journal of Human Evolution, 51, 255–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, Z., Roberts, R. G., Galbraith, R. F., Deacon, H. J., Grun, R., Mackay, A., Mitchell, P., Vogelsang, R., & Wadley, L. (2008). Ages for the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: Implications for human behavior and dispersal. Science, 322, 733–735.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jerardino, A. (2010). Prehistoric exploitation of marine resources in Southern Africa with particular reference to shellfish gathering: Opportunities and continuities. Pyrenae, 41, 7–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jerardino, A., & Marean, C. W. (2010). Shellfish gathering, marine paleoecology and modern human behavior: Perspectives from cave PP13B, Pinnacle Point, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 59, 412–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeske, R. J. (1989). Economies in raw material use by prehistoric hunter–gatherers. In R. Torrence (Ed.), Time, energy, and stone tools (pp. 34–45). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, E., & Bement, L. C. (2009). Bison butchery at Cooper, a Folsom site on the Southern Plains. Journal of Archaeological Science, 46, 1430–1446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, R. L. (1988). The three sides of a biface. American Antiquity, 53, 717–734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, R. L. (1995). The foraging spectrum: Diversity in hunter–gatherer lifeways. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, R. L., & Todd, L. (1988). Coming into the country: Early Paleoindian hunting and mobility. American Antiquity, 53, 231–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kent, S. (1993). Sharing in a Kalahari village. Man, 28, 479–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, R. G. (1976). The mammalian fauna of the Klasies River Mouth sites, southern Cape Province, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 31, 74–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, R. G. (2000). Archeology and the evolution of human behavior. Evolutionary Anthropology, 9, 17–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, R. G., & Cruz-Uribe, K. (2000). Middle and Later Stone Age large mammal and tortoise remains from Die Kelders, Cave 1, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 38, 169–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, R. G., & Edgar, B. (2002). The dawn of human culture. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, R. G., Avery, G., Cruz-Uribe, K., Halkett, D., Parkington, J. E., Steele, T., Volman, T. P., & Yates, R. (2004). The Ysterfontein 1 Middle Stone Age site, South Africa, and early human exploitation of coastal resources. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101, 5708–5715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langejans, G.H.J., Van Niekerk, K., Dusseldorp, G.L., Thackeray, J.F. (2012). Middle Stone Age shellfish exploitation: Evidence for mass collecting at Blombos Cave and Klasies River, South Africa. Quaternary International (in press).

  • Lee, R. (1979). The !Kung San: Men, women and work in a foraging society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2005a). The Howiesons Poort of South Africa: What we know, what we think we know, what we need to know. Southern African Humanities, 17, 33–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2005b). Evidence of hunting and hafting during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal: A multianalytical approach. Journal of Human Evolution, 48, 279–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2006). Direct evidence for the use of ochre in the hafting technology of Middle Stone Age tools from Sibudu Cave. Southern African Humanities, 18, 57–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2007a). The gripping nature of ochre: The association of ochre with Howiesons Poort adhesives and Later Stone Age mastics from South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 53, 406–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2007b). The morphological identification of micro-residues on stone tools using light microscopy: Progress and difficulties based on blind tests. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 155–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2008). Finding resolution for the Howiesons Poort through the microscope: Microresidue analysis of segments from Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 26–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2009). The Howieson’s Poort of South Africa amplified. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 64, 4–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M., & Pargeter, J. (2008). Hunting with Howiesons Poort segments: Pilot experimental study and the functional interpretation of archaeological tools. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 26–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M., & Parsons, I. (2010). Fact or fiction? Behavioural and technological reversal after 60 ka in Southern Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 65, 224–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M., & Phillipson, L. (2010). Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64 000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Antiquity, 84, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackay, A. (2009). History and selection in the late Pleistocene archaeology of the Western Cape, South Africa. Ph.D. Dissertation, Australia National University

  • Mackay, A. (2011). Nature and significance of the Howiesons Poort to post-Howiesons Poort transition at Klein Kliphuis rockshelter, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 1430–1440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marean, C. W. (1998). A critique of the evidence for scavenging by Neandertals and early modern humans: New data from Kobeh Cave (Zagros Mountains, Iran) and Die Kelders Cave 1 Layer 10 (South Africa). Journal of Human Evolution, 35, 111–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marean, C.W. (2008). The African origins of modern human behavior. In Nobel Conference 44. Gustavus Adolphus College. http://gustavus.edu/events/ nobelconference/2008/7 October.

  • Marean, C. W. (2010). Pinnacle Point Cave 13B (Western Cape Province, South Africa) in context: The Cape Floral kingdom, shellfish, and modern human origins. Journal of Human Evolution, 59, 425–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marean, C. W., & Kim, S. Y. (1998). Mousterian faunal remains from Kobeh Cave (Zagros Mountains, Iran): Behavioral implications for Neanderthals and early modern humans. Current Anthropology, 39, S79–S113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marean, C. W., Abe, Y., Frey, C. J., & Randall, R. C. (2000). Zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of the Die Kelders Cave 1 Layers 10 and 11 Middle Stone Age larger mammal fauna. Journal of Human Evolution, 38, 197–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marean, C. W., Nilssen, P., Brown, K., Jerardino, A., & Stynder, D. (2004). Paleoanthropological investigations of Middle Stone Age sites at Pinnacle Point, Mossel Bay (South Africa): Archaeology and hominid remains from the 2000 field season. PaleoAnthropology, 2004, 14–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marean, C. W., Bar-Matthews, M., Bernatchez, J., Fisher, E., Goldberg, P., Herries, A. I. R., Jacobs, Z., Jerardino, A., Karkanas, P., Minichillo, T., Nilssen, P. J., Thompson, E., Watts, I., & Williams, H. M. (2007). Early human use of marine resources and pigment in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene. Nature, 449, 905–908.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshack, A. (1972). Upper Paleolithic notation and symbol. Science, 178, 817–828.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McBrearty, S., & Brooks, A. S. (2000). The revolution that wasn’t: A new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution, 39, 453–563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCall, G. S. (2006). Multivariate perspectives on change and continuity in the Middle Stone Age lithics from Klasies River Mouth, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 51, 429–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCall, G. S. (2007). Behavioral ecological models of lithic technological change during the later Middle Stone Age of South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 1738–1751.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCall, G. S. (2011). Progression, regression, or adaption: Further thoughts on the post-Howiesons Poort Middle Stone Age of South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 66, 89–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCall, G.S. (2012). Ethnoarchaeology and the organization of lithic technology. Journal of Archaeological Research, 20, 157–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCall, G. S., & Thomas, J. T. (2009). Re-examining the South African Middle-to-Later Stone Age transition: Multivariate analysis of the Umhlatuzana and Rose Cottage Cave stone tool assemblages. Azania, 44, 311–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCall, G. S., & Whittaker, J. C. (2007). Handaxes still don’t fly. Lithic Technology, 32, 195–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mellars, P. (1989). Major issues in the origins of modern humans. Current Anthropology, 30, 349–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mellars, P. (2005). The impossible coincidence. A single-species model for the origins of modern human behavior in Europe. Evolutionary Anthropology, 14, 12–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mellars, P. (2006a). Why did modern human populations disperse from Africa ca. 60,000 years ago? A new model. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 103, 9381–9386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mellars, P. (2006b). Archaeology and the dispersal of modern humans in Europe: Deconstructing the “Aurignacian,”. Evolutionary Anthropology 15, 167–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mellars, P., Boyle, K., Bar-Yosef, O., & Stringer, C. (Eds.). (2007). Rethinking the uuman revolution: New behavioural and biological perspectives on the origin and dispersal of modern humans. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. H., Beaumont, P. B., Deacon, H. J., Brooks, A. S., Hare, P. E., & Jull, A. J. T. (1999). Earliest modern humans in southern Africa dated by isoleucine epimerization in ostrich eggshell. Quaternary Science Reviews, 18, 1537–1548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milo, R. G. (1998). Evidence for hominid predation at Klasies River Mouth, South Africa, and its implications for the behavior of early modern humans. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25, 99–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minichillo, T.J. (2005). Middle Stone Age Lithic Study, South Africa: An examination of modern human origins. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington.

  • Minichillo, T. (2006). Raw material use and behavioral modernity: Howiesons Poort lithic foraging strategies. Journal of Human Evolution, 50, 359–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, P. (1988). The late Pleistocene early microlithic assemblages of southern Africa. World Archaeology, 20, 27–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohapi, M. (2007). Rose Cottage Cave Middle Stone Age lithic points: Does technological change imply change in hunting techniques? South African Archaeological Bulletin, 62, 9–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montet-White, A. (2002). Les outillages des chasseurs de Solutré. Mémoires de la Société Préhistorique Française, 30, 225–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mourre, V., Villa, P., & Henshilwood, C. S. (2010). Early use of pressure flaking on lithic artifacts at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Science, 330, 659–662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mulvaney, D. J. (1969). The prehistory of Australia. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro, N. D. (1999). Small game as indicators of sedentization during the Natufian period at Hayonim in Israel. In J. Driver (Ed.), Zooarchaeology of the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary (pp. 37–45). Oxford: BAR International Series 800, British Archaeological Reports.

  • Neeley, M.P., and Clark, G.A. (1993). The human food niche in the Levant over the past 150,000 years. In G.L. Peterkin, H.M. Bricker and P.A. Mellars (Eds.) Hunting and animal exploitation in the Later Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Eurasia (pp. 221–240). Washington, D.C.: Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 4.

  • Nowell, A. (2010). Defining behavioral modernity in the context of Neanderthal and anatomically modern human populations. Annual Review of Anthropology, 39, 437–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Odell, G. H. (1996). Economizing behavior and the concept of “curation.” In G. H. Odell (Ed.), Stone tools: Theoretical insights into human prehistory (pp. 51–80). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pargeter, J. (2007). Howiesons Poort segments as hunting weapons: Experiments with replicated projectiles. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 62, 147–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parkington, J. (1990). A critique of the consensus view on the age of the Howieson’s Poort assemblages in South Africa. In P. Mellars (Ed.), The emergence of modern humans (pp. 34–55). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parry, W. J., & Kelly, R. L. (1987). Expedient core technology and sedentism. In J. Johnson & C. A. Morrow (Eds.), The organization of core technology (pp. 285–304). Boulder: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plug, I. (2004). Resource exploitation: Animal use during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal. South African Journal of Science, 100, 151–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plug, I. (2006). Aquatic animals and their associates from the Middle Stone Age levels at Sibudu. Southern African Humanities, 18, 289–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plug, I., & Clark, J. L. (2008). In the air: A preliminary report on the birds from Sibudu Cave. KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 10, 133–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porraz, G., Texier, P.-J., Rigaud, J.-P., Parkington, J., Poggenpoel, C., & Roberts, D. L. (2008). Preliminary characterisation of an MSA lithic assemblage preceding the ‘classic’ HP complex at Diepkloof Rock Shelter. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 10, 105–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, A., Shennan, S., & Thomas, M. G. (2009). Late Pleistocene demography and the appearance of modern human behavior. Science, 324, 1298–1301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rigaud, J.-P., Texier, P.-J., Parkington, J., & Poggenpoel, C. (2006). Le mobilier Stillbay et Howiesons Poort de l'abri Diepkloof. La chronologie du Middle Stone Age sud-africain et ses implications. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 5, 839–849.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sampson, C. G. (1974). The Stone Age archaeology of southern Africa. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sealy, J., & Galimberti, M. (2011). Shellfishing and the interpretation of shellfish sizes in the Middle and Later Stone Ages of South Africa. In N. F. Bicho, J. A. Haws, & L. G. Davis (Eds.), Trekking the shore: Changing Coastlines and the Antiquity of coastal settlement (pp. 405–420). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sellet, F. (2004). Beyond the point: Projectile manufacture and behavioral inference. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31, 1553–1566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shea, J. J. (1997). Middle Paleolithic spear point technology. In H. Knecht (Ed.), Projectile Technology (pp. 79–106). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea, J. J. (2006). The origins of lithic projectile point technology: Evidence from Africa, the Levant, and Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science, 33, 823–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shea, J. J. (2009). The impact of projectile weaponry on Late Pleistocene hominin evolution. In J.-J. Hublin & M. P. Richards (Eds.), The evolution of hominin diets: Integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence (pp. 189–199). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea, J. J. (2011). Homo sapiens is as Homo sapiens was. Current Anthropology, 52, 1–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shea, J. J., Davis, Z., & Brown, K. (2001). Experimental tests of Middle Paleolithic spear points using a calibrated crossbow. Journal of Archaeological Science, 28, 807–816.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shennan, S. (2001). Demography and cultural innovation: A model and its implications for the emergence of modern human culture. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 11, 5–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shott, M. J. (2007). The role of reduction in lithic studies. Lithic Technology, 32, 131–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, R., & Wymer, J. (1982). The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sisk, M. L., & Shea, J. J. (2009). Experimental use and quantitative performance analysis of triangular flakes (Levallois points) used as arrowheads. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 2039–2047.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soressi, M., & Dibble, H. L. (Eds.). (2003). Multiple approaches to the study of bifacial technologies. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soressi, M., & Hays, M. A. (2003). Manufacture, transport, and use of Mousterian bifaces: A case study from the Périgord, (France) In M. Soressi & H. L. Dibble (Eds.), Multiple approaches to the study of bifacial technologies (pp. 125–148). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soriano, S., Villa, P., & Wadley, L. (2007). Blade technology and tool forms in the Middle Stone Age of South Africa: The Howiesons Poort and post-Howiesons Poort at Rose Cottage Cave. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 681–703.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Speer, C. A. (2010). Understanding the effects of heat treatment on Edwards Plateau chert. Ethnoarchaeology, 2, 153–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C. (2001). Thirty years on the “Broad Spectrum Revolution” and paleolithic demography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 98, 6993–6996.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C., Munro, N. D., & Surovell, T. A. (2000). The tortoise and the hare: Small game use, the Broad Spectrum Revolution, and Paleolithic demography. Current Anthropology, 41, 39–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, L. G. (1991). Southwestern Europe at the last glacial maximum. Current Anthropology, 32, 189–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Texier, P.-J., Porraz, G., Parkington, J., Rigaud, J.-P., Poggenpoel, C., Miller, C., Tribolo, C., Cartwright, C., Coudenneau, A., Klein, R., Steele, T., & Verna, C. (2010). A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 107, 6180–6185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thackeray, J. F. (1988). The molluscan fauna from Klasies River, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 43, 27–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thackeray, J. F. (2009). Chronology, climate and technological innovation associated with the Howieson’s Poort and Still Bay industries in South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 105, 90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thieme, H. (2005). The Lower Paleolithic art of hunting: The case of Shoningen 13 II-4, Lower Saxony, Germany. In C. Camble & M. Porr (Eds.), The Individual hominid in context: Archaeological investigations of Middle and Lower Paleolithic landscapes, locales, and artifacts (pp. 115–132). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J.C. (2008). Zooarchaeological tests for modern human behavior at Blombos Cave and Pinnacle Point Cave 13B, Southwestern Cape, South Africa. Ph.D. Dissertation, Arizona State University

  • Thompson, J. C., & Henshilwood, C. S. (2011). Taphonomic analysis of the Middle Stone Age larger mammal faunal assemblage from Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 60, 746–767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tishkoff, S. A., Gonder, M. K., Henn, B. M., Mortensen, H., Knight, A., Gignoux, C., Fernandopulle, N., Lema, G., Nyambo, T. B., & Ramakrishnan, U. (2007). Historyof click-speaking populations of Africa inferred from mtDNA and Y chromosome genetic variation. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 24, 2180–2195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tribolo, C., Mercier, N., Selo, M., Valladas, H., Joron, J.-L., Reyss, J.-L., Henshilwood, C. S., Sealy, J., & Yates, R. (2006). TL dating of burnt lithics from Blombos Cave (South Africa): Further evidence for the antiquity of modern human behaviour. Archaeometry, 48, 341–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tribolo, C., Mercier, A., Valladas, H., Joron, J. L., Guibert, P., Lefrais, Y., Selo, M., Texier, P.-J, Rigaud, J.-Ph., Porraz, G., Poggenpoel, C., Parkington, J., Texier, J.-P., & Lenoble, A. (2009). Thermoluminescence dating of a Stillbay–Howiesons Poort sequence at Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape, South Africa). Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 730–739.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tuohy, D. (2004). Archaeological curved throwing sticks from Fish Gave, near Fallon, Nevada. Journal of California and Great Basin Studies, 24, 13–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valentin, B., Julien, M., and Bodu, P. (2002). Lithic raw material economy in the Late Glacial of the Paris Basin: Case studies from Magdalenian, Federmesser and long blade technology hunter–gatherers. In L.E Fischer and B.V. Erikson (Eds.), Lithic raw material economies in late glacial and early postglacial Europe (pp. 117–132). London: British Archaeological Reports, vol. 1093, Tempus Reparatsm.

  • Vanhaeren, M., d'Errico, F., Stringer, C., James, S., Todd, J. A., & Mienis, H. (2006). Middle Paleolithic shell beads in Israel and Algeria. Science, 312, 1785–1788.

  • Villa, P., Delagnes, A., & Wadley, L. (2005). A Late Middle Stone Age artifact assemblage from Sibudu (KwaZulu-Natal). Comparisons with the European Middle Paleolithic. Journal of Archaeological Science, 32, 399–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villa, P., Soressi, M., Henshilwood, C. S., & Mourre, V. (2009). The Still Bay points of Blombos Cave (South Africa). Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 441–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villa, P., Soriano, S., Teyssandier, N., & Wurz, S. (2010). The Howiesons Poort and MSA III at Klasies River main site, Cave 1A. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37, 630–655.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Volman, T.P. (1981). The Middle Stone Age in the southern Cape. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Chicago.

  • Volman, T. P. (1984). Early prehistory of southern Africa. In R. G. Klein (Ed.), Southern African prehistory and paleoenvironments (pp. 169–220). Rotterdam: Balkema.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L. (2001). What is cultural modernity? A general view and a South African perspective from Rose Cottage Cave. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 11, 201–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L. (2005). A typological study of the final Middle Stone Age stone tools from Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 60, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L. (2007). Announcing a Still Bay industry at Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 52, 681–689.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L. (2008). The Howieson’s Poort industry of Sibudu Cave. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 10, 122–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L. (2010a). Were snares and traps used in the Middle Stone Age and does it matter? A review and a case study from Sibudu, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 58, 179–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L. (2010b). Compound-adhesive manufacture as a behavioral proxy for complex cognition in the Middle Stone Age. Current Anthropology, 51, S111–S119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L., & Binneman, J. N. F. (1995). Arrowheads or pen knives? A microwear analysis of mid-Holocene stone segments from Jubilee Shelter, Transvaal. South African Journal of Science, 91, 153–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L., & Mohapi, M. (2008). A segment is not a monolith: Evidence from the Howiesons Poort of Sibudu, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 2594–2605.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L., Hodgskiss, T., & Grant, M. (2009). Implications for complex cognition from the hafting of tools with compound adhesives in the Middle Stone Age, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 106, 9590–9594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, E., Wetterstrom, W., Nadel, D., & Bar-Yosef, O. (2004). The broad spectrum revisited: Evidence from plant remains. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 101, 9551–9555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wendt, W. E. (1972). Preliminary report on an archaeological research program in South West Africa. Cimbebasia (B), 11, 1–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whittaker, J. C. (1994). Flintknapping: Making and understanding stone tools. Austin: University of Texas Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiessner, P. (1982). Risk, reciprocity and social influences on !Kung San economics. In E. Leacock & R. B. Lee (Eds.), Politics and history in band societies (pp. 61–84). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiessner, P. (2002). Hunting, healing, and hxaro exchange: A long-term perspective on !Kung (Ju/’hoansi) large-game hunting. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 407–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wurz, S. (1999). The Howiesons Poort backed artifacts from Klasies River: An argument for symbolic behaviour. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 54, 38–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wurz, S. (2000). The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River. D.Phil. Dissertation, University of Stellenbosch.

  • Wurz, S. (2002). Variability in the Middle Stone Age lithic sequence, 115,000–60,000 years ago at Klasies River, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29, 1001–1015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wurz, S. (2008). Modern behaviour at Klasies River. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 10, 150–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wurz, S. (2010). Middle Stone Age tools from Klasies River main site: Conventions and symbolic cognition. In A. Nowell & I. Davidson (Eds.), The cutting edge: Stone tools and the evolution of cognition (pp. 135–158). Boulder: Colorado University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wurz, S., & Lombard, M. (2007). 70,000 year-old geometric backed tools from the Howiesons Poort at Klasies River, South Africa: Were they used for hunting? Southern African Humanities, 19, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wurz, S. (2012). The significance of MIS 5 shell middens on the Cape coast: A lithic perspective from Klasies River and Ysterfontein 1. Quaternary International (in press).

  • Yu, P.-L. (2006). From atlatl to bow and arrow. In F. Sellet, R. Greaves, & P.-L. Yu (Eds.), Archaeology and ethnoarchaeology of mobility (pp. 201–220). Gainesville: University Press of Florida.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank the editor and seven anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and patience with the revision of this paper. The discussion of faunal remains and shellfish benefited from correspondence with Jamie Clark and Antonieta Jerardino. We are grateful to Rachel Horowitz, Rebecca Taylor-Perryman, Anna Waterman, Ted Marks, and Sarah McCall for help in editing the manuscript. We thank Vanessa Nelson, James Enloe, and Maxime Lamoureaux-St. Hilaire for help in translating the French abstract. We also thank Paola Villa for the use of photographs in the composition of Fig. 2, and the Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow, for use of the photo in Fig. 4. Any mistakes in this paper are, of course, our own.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, 101 Dinwiddie Hall, New Orleans, LA, 70118, USA

    Grant S. McCall

  2. Department of Anthropology, University of Iowa, 114 Macbride Hall, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA

    Jonathan T. Thomas

Authors
  1. Grant S. McCall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jonathan T. Thomas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Grant S. McCall.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

McCall, G.S., Thomas, J.T. Still Bay and Howiesons Poort Foraging Strategies: Recent Research and Models of Culture Change. Afr Archaeol Rev 29, 7–50 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-012-9107-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-012-9107-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation