Conversation Analysis: An Introduction to Methodology, Data Collection, and Analysis

Abstract

Conversation analysis is a qualitative research methodology with roots in sociology, and, in particular, ethnomethodology. Over the past 50 years, it has developed not only within sociology but across the fields of linguistics, anthropology, and psychology. In health care research, conversation analysis has been successfully applied in researching interactions in primary care, surgery, pediatrics, and psychotherapy, to name a few examples. Conversation analysis allows the researcher to analyze the structures of interaction at a micro level, focusing on how the participants make sense of each other in conversation through shared interactional norms. In this chapter, I begin by surveying the history and development of conversation analysis. I consider methods of data collection and explore aspects of analysis in everyday conversation and in institutional interaction. I review key conversation analytic research in health care and consider its application and use for health care researchers.

Appendix: Transcription Notation

The transcription notations that are used in this research are taken from ten Have (1999, pp. 213–214) and Gardner (2001, pp. xi–xxi). These are based on the Jeffersonian transcription system.

Sequencing
[	A single left bracket indicates overlap onset.
]	A single right bracket indicates the point at which an overlap terminates in relation to another utterance.
=	Equal signs, one at the end of one line and one at the beginning of the next, indicate no gap between the two turns. This is called latching.
>	A carat bracket is used within a speaker to indicate no gap between a speaker’s turn constructional units.
Intervals
(0.0)	Numbers in parentheses indicate elapsed time in silence by tenth of seconds. This works within a turn, a turn constructional unit or between speakers. For example, (2.1) is a pause of 2 s and one tenth of a second.
(.)	A dot in parentheses indicates a tiny gap of less than 0.2 s within or between utterances.
Prosodic features of utterances
word	Underscoring a word or part thereof indicates some form of stress.
::	Colons indicate prolongation of the immediately prior sound. Multiple colons indicate a more prolonged sound.
-	A dash indicates a cutoff.
w-w-word	Stuttering is indicated by a repetition of the stuttered sound connected by hyphens.
*	An asterisk around an utterance or part thereof indicates creaky voice.
$	A dollar symbol around an utterance or part thereof indicates smiley voice.
.	A period indicates a stopping fall in intonation.
,	A comma indicates a slightly rising, continuing intonation.
?	A question mark indicates a rising intonation.
¿	A “Spanish question” mark indicates stronger rise than a comma but weaker than a question mark.
_	An underline symbol after the word indicates a level pitch contour.
x:x	An underlined colon within a syllable indicates that the intonation within the syllable falls then rises.
xx:	An underlined second letter within a syllable followed by a nonunderlined colon indicates that the intonation within the syllable rises then falls.
	The absence of an utterance-final marker indicates some sort of “indeterminate” contour.
↑	An upward arrow indicates a marked shift into higher pitch in the utterance-part immediately following the arrow.
↓	A downward arrow indicates a marked shift into lower pitch in the utterance-part immediately following the arrow.
WORD	Upper case indicates especially loud sounds relative to the surrounding talk.
·word	Staccato talk is indicated by a bullet prior to the utterance-part.
°word° °°word°°	Utterances or utterance-parts bracketed by degree signs are relatively quieter than the surrounding talk. Very quiet talk is indicated by two degrees signs on each side.
<word>	Left/right carats bracketing an utterance or part thereof indicate slowing down as compared to the surrounding talk.
>word<	Right/left carats bracketing an utterance or part thereof indicate speeding up as compared to the surrounding talk.
.hhh	A dot-prefixed row of “h’s indicates an in breath.
hhh	Without the dot, the “h”s indicate an out breath.
w(h)ord	A parenthesized h, or a row of hs within a word, indicates breathiness, such as can be heard in laughter and crying.
Transcriber’s doubts and comments
( )	The length of empty parentheses indicates the length of talk that the transcriber was unable to hear. Empty parentheses in the speaker designation column indicate inability to identify a speaker.
(word)	Especially dubious hearings or speaker identifications are indicated by parentheses around the utterance, utterance-part, or speaker designation.
(( ))	Transcriber descriptions are indicated by double parentheses.