Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Mental Health and Illness of Women

Part of the book series: Mental Health and Illness Worldwide ((MHIW))

  • 70 Accesses

Abstract

According to the UNHCR, in the year 2018, more than 68.5 million people live in external or internal situation of displacement. The reasons are different and complex, including political, logistic, economic, and social factors. Women and girls make up around 50% per cent of any refugee, internally displaced, or stateless people. It is highly likely that the stress factors before, during, and after migration will contribute to the development of psychiatric disorders in vulnerable individuals. In some cases, the onset of illness may occur soon after migration, whereas in other cases, mental health problems may develop over time as one result of the impact of social factors and changes related to the host society. Additionally, post-migration factors have a high impact on the development of psychiatric disorders. Therefore, healthcare services should prepare themselves to serve this group of refugee, asylum seeker, and ethnic minority patients in a better way. Furthermore, in all these issues, gender-specific factors have also have to be taken into consideration. Individual, psychological resources, social support, a successful acculturation processes, cultural variations, and time since relocation are statistically significant protective factors against the development of common mental disorders among refugees, asylum seekers, and ethnic minorities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Bhugra D, Gupta S, Bhui K, Craig T, Dogra N, Ingleby JD et al (2011) WPA guidance on mental health and mental health care in migrants. World Psychiatry 10(1):2–10

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bhugra D, Gupta S, Schouler-Ocak M, Graeff-Calliess I, Deakin NA, Qureshi A, Dales J, Moussaoui D, Kastrup M, Tarricone I, Till A, Bassi M, Carta M (2014) EPA guidance mental health care of migrants. Eur Psychiatry 29(2):107–115

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhuyan R, Senturia K (2005) Understanding domestic violence resource utilization and survivor solutions among immigrant and refugee women. Introduction to the special issue. J Interpers Violence 20(8):895–901

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogic M, Ajdukovic D, Bremner S, Franciskovic T, Galeazzi GM, Kucukalic A, Lecic-Tosevski D, Morina N, Popovski M, Schützwohl M, Wang D, Priebe S (2012) Factors associated with mental disorders in long-settled war refugees: refugees from the former Yugoslavia in Germany, Italy and the UK. Br J Psychiatry 200(3):216–223

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogic M, Njoku A, Priebe S (2015) Long-term mental health of war-refugees: a systematic literature review. BMC Int Health Hum Rights 15:29

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bourque F, van der Ven E, Malla A (2011) A meta-analysis of the risk for psychotic disorders among first- and second-generation immigrants. Psychol Med 41(5):897–910

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau N (2002) Gender differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Gend Specif Med 5(1):34–40

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown AL, Messman-Moore TL, Miller AG, Stasser G (2005) Sexual victimization in relation to perceptions of risk: mediation, generalization and temporal stability. Pers Soc Psycholy Bull 31(7):963–976

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Close C, Kouvonen A, Bosqui T, Patel K, O’Reilly D, Donnelly M (2016) The mental health and wellbeing of first generation migrants: a systematic-narrative review of reviews. Glob Health 12:47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dapunt J, Kluge U, Heinz A (2017) Risk of psychosis in refugees: a literature review. Transl Psychiatry 7:e1149

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • De J, Van Ommeren M (2005) Mental health services in a multicultural society: interculturalization and its quality surveillance. Transcult Psychiatry 42(3):437–456

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenta H, Hyman I, Noh S (2007) Health service utilization by Ethiopian immigrants and refugees in Toronto. J Immigr Minor Health 9(4):349–357

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freedman J (2016) Sexual and gender-based violence against refugee women: a hidden aspect of the refugee “crisis”. Reprod Health Matters 24(47):18–26

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giacco D, Laxhman N, Priebe S (2018) Prevalence of and risk factors for mental disorders in refugees. Semin Cell Dev Biol 77:144–152

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guruge S, Thomson MS, George U, Chaze F (2015) Social support, social conflict, and immigrant women’s mental health in a Canadian context: a scoping review. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 22(9):655–667

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heeren M, Wittmann L, Ehlert U, Schnyder U, Maier T, Müller J (2014) Psychopathology and resident status – comparing asylum seekers, refugees, illegal migrants, labor migrants, and residents. Compr Psychiatry 55(4):818–825

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hynes M, Lopes CB (2000) Sexual violence against refugee women. J Wom Health Gend Based Med 9(8):819–823

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jesuthasan J, Sönmez E, Abels I, Kurmeyer C, Gutermann J, Kimbel R, Krüger A, Niklewski G, Richter K, Stangier U, Wollny A, Zier U, Oertelt-Prigione S, Schouler-Ocak M (2018) Near-death experiences, attacks by family members, and absence of health care in their home countries affect the quality of life of refugee women in Germany: a multi-region, cross-sectional, gender-sensitive study. BMC Med 16(1):15

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Agbakwu CE, Helm T, Killawi A, Padela AI (2014) Perceptions of obstetrical interventions and female genital cutting: insights of men in a Somali refugee community. Ethn Health 19(4):440–457

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karl-Trummer U, Novak-Zezula S, Metzler B (2010) Access to health care for undocumented migrants in the EU: a first landscape of now hereland. Eur Secur 16:13–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB (1995) Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52(12):1048–1060

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keygnaert I, Vettenburg N, Temmerman M (2012) Hidden violence is silent rape: sexual and gender-based violence in refugees, asylum seekers and undocumented migrants in Belgium and the Netherlands. Cult Health Sex 14(5):505–520

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kluge U, Bogic M, Devillé W, Greacen T, Dauvrin M, Dias S, Gaddini A et al (2012) Health services and the treatment of immigrants: data on service use, interpreting services and immigrant staff members in services across Europe. Eur Psychiatry 27(Suppl 2):S56–S62

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krieger J, Allen C, Cheadle A, Ciske S, Schier JK, Senturia K, Sullivan M (2002) Using community-based participatory research to address social determinants of health: lessons learned from Seattle Partners for Healthy Communities. Health Educ Behav 29(3):361–382

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Küey L (2015) Trauma and migration: the role of stigma. In: Schouler-Ocak M (ed) Trauma and migration. Switzerland: Springer, pp 57–69

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Laban CJ et al (2004) Impact of a long asylum procedure on the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in Iraqi asylum seekers in the Netherlands. J Nerv Ment Dis 192(12):843–851

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lai DWL, Surood S (2010) Types and factor structure of barriers to utilization of health services among aging south Asians in Calgary, Canada. Can J Aging 29:249–258

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis-Fernández R, Aggarwal NK, Kirmayer LJ (2016) Introduction (xxvii-xxiv). In: Lewis-Fernandez R, Aggarwal N, Hinton L, Hinton D, Kirmayer LJ (eds) DSM-5 handbook on the cultural formulation interview. American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington, DC, pp 173–181

    Google Scholar 

  • Lie DA, Lee-Rey E, Gomez A, Bereknyei S, Braddock CH 3rd (2011) Does cultural competency training of health professionals improve patient outcomes? A systematic review and proposed algorithm for future research. J Gen Intern Med 26(3):317–325

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindert J et al (2009) Depression and anxiety in labour migrants and refugees. Soc Sci Med 69:246–257

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lund C, Brooke-Sumner C, Baingana F, Baron EC, Breuer E, Chandra P, Haushofer J, Herrman H, Jordans M, Kieling C, Medina-Mora ME, Morgan E, Omigbodun O, Tol W, Patel V, Saxena S (2018) Social determinants of mental disorders and the sustainable development goals: a systematic review of reviews. Lancet Psychiatry 5:357–369

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller K, Rasmussen A (2010) War exposure, daily stressors, and mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings: bridging the divide between trauma-focused and psychosocial frameworks. Soc Sci Med 70:7–16

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller K, Kulkarni M, Kushner H (2006) Beyond trauma-focused psychiatric epidemiology: bridging research and practice with war-affected populations. Am J Orthopsychiatry 76: 409–422

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mitike G, Deressa W (2009) Prevalence and associated factors of female genital mutilation among Somali refugees in eastern Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 9:264

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mladovsky P, Ingleby D, McKee M, Rechel B (2012) Responding to diversity: an exploratory study of migrant health policies in Europe. Health Policy 105:1–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nosè M, Ballette F, Bighelli I, Turrini G, Purgato M, Tol W, Priebe S, Barbui C (2017) Psychosocial interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder in refugees and asylum seekers resettled in high-income countries: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 12(2):e0171030

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pace P (2011) The right to health of migrants in Europe. In: Rechel B, Mladovsky P, Devillé W, Rijks B, Petrova-Benedict R, McKee M (eds) Migration and health in the European Union. Open University Press, Maidenhead, pp 55–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter M, Haslam N (2005) Predisplacement and postdisplacement factors associated with mental health of refugees and internally displaced persons. A meta-analysis. JAMA 294(5):606–612

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qureshi A, Collazos F (2011) The intercultural and interracial therapeutic relationship: challenges and recommendations. Int Rev Psychiatry 23(1):10–19

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rechel B, Mladovsky P, Devillé W (2012) Monitoring migrant health in Europe: a narrative review of data collection practices. Health Policy 105:10–16

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rechel IB, Mladovsky P, Ingleby D, Mackenbach JP, McKee M (2013) Migration and health in an increasingly diverse Europe. Lancet 381:1235–1245

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schouler-Ocak M (2015) Psychiatrische Versorgung von Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund in Deutschland. Nervenarzt 86:1320–1325

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schouler-Ocak M, Heredia Montesinos A, Aichberger MC (2014) Suicide prevention for women with a Turkish migrant background. Ärztl Psychother Psychosom Med 9(2):68–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Schouler-Ocak M, Graef-Calliess IT, Tarricone I, Qureshi A, Kastrup M, Bhugra D (2015) EPA guidance on cultural competence training. Eur Psychiatry 30(3):431–440

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schouler-Ocak M, Laban CJ, Bäärnhielm S, Kastrup MC, Dein S, Wintrob R (2019) WPA-TPS – Refugee, asylum seeker and immigrant patients over the globe. In: Fountoulakis KN, Javed A (eds) Advances in Psychiatry, Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature, pp 637–655

    Google Scholar 

  • Stempel C, Sami N, Koga PM, Alemi Q, Smith V, Shirazi A (2016) Gendered sources of distress and resilience among Afghan refugees in Northern California: a cross-sectional study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14(1):25

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart M, Shizha E, Makwarimba E et al (2011) Challenges and barriers to services for immigrant seniors in Canada: ‘you are among others but you feel alone’. Int J Migr Health Soc Care 7:16–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tavara L (2006) Sexual violence. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 20(3):395–408

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turrini G, Purgato M, Ballette F, Nosè M, Ostuzzi G, Barbui C (2017) Common mental disorders in asylum seekers and refugees: umbrella review of prevalence and intervention studies. Int J Ment Heal Syst 11:51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNCHR (2015) Global Trends 2014. http://www.unhcr.de/service/zahlen-und-statistiken.html. Downloaded 01 July 2015

  • UNESCO (2019). http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/asylum-seeker/. 23 Mar 2019

  • UNHCR (2003) Sexual and gender-based violence against refugees, returnees and internally displaced persons: guidelines for prevention and response. UNHCR, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • UNHCR (2018). http://www.unhcr.org/figures-at-a-glance; June 2018. 23 Mar 2019

  • UNHCR (2019a). https://www.unrefugees.org/refugee-facts/what-is-a-refugee/. 23 Mar 2019

  • UNHCR (2019b). http://www.unhcr.org/women.html. 23 Mar 2019

  • Veling W, Susser E, Selten JP, Hoek HW (2014) Social disorganization of neighborhoods and incidence of psychotic disorders: a 7-year first-contact incidence study. Psychol Med 17:1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward J, Vann B (2002) Gender-based violence in refugee settings. Lancet 360(Suppl):13–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wenzel SL, Tucker JS, Elliott MN, Marshall GN, Williamson SL (2004) Physical violence against impoverished women: a longitudinal analysis of risk and protective factors. Womens Health Issues 14(5):144–154

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University Psychiatric Clinic of Charite at St. Hedwig’s Hospital , Berlin, Germany

    M. Schouler-Ocak

Authors
  1. M. Schouler-Ocak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. Schouler-Ocak .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. N Inst. of Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bangalore, India

    Prabha Chandra

  2. University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

    Helen Herrman

  3. Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

    Jane Fisher

  4. CenterforGenderResearch& Early Detection, University Hospital of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

    Anita Riecher-Rössler

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Schouler-Ocak, M. (2019). Refugees and Asylum Seekers. In: Chandra, P., Herrman, H., Fisher, J., Riecher-Rössler, A. (eds) Mental Health and Illness of Women. Mental Health and Illness Worldwide. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0371-4_2-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0371-4_2-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-10-0371-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-10-0371-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Behavioral Science and PsychologyReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation