Abstract
This review covers a wide swathe of the research worldwide on the epidemiology of mental disorders in late life. Data on the prevalence and incidence of mental disorders are important not only for mental health professionals but also health policy makers who have to plan services for an increasing number of elderly people. Although epidemiological data today are mainly from developed countries, in recent years many developing countries have conducted studies on dementia in community-dwelling elderly.
From the published data of elderly populations 65 years and over, the prevalence of depressive disorders is estimated at 2–21% and dementia between 2% and 8%. Most studies have reported a higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease than vascular dementia. Research on survival after a diagnosis of dementia indicates a varying period from 5 to 12 years. The reported prevalence of anxiety disorders is 3–14%, and comorbidity of anxiety-depression is high ranging from 40% to 90%. Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and other psychotic disorders are less common in old age.
The wide variations in prevalence rates especially for depressive disorders could be due to the differences in sampling methodology, interview instruments, and diagnostic criteria.
Epidemiological studies have identified risk factors which are crucial for early detection and interventions in preventive psychiatry. In the last decade, there are encouraging results from a few interventional programs in the prevention of dementia and depression in late life.
References
Akatsu H, Takahashi M, Matsukawa N, Ishikawa Y, Kondo N, Sato T, Nakazawa H, Yamada T, Okada H, Yamamoto T, Kosaka K (2002) Subtype analysis of neuropathologically diagnosed patients in a Japanese geriatric hospital. J Neurol Sci 196:63–69
Alexopoulos GS, Myers BS, Young RC, Campbell S, Silbersweig D (1997) ‘Vascular depression’ hypothesis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54:915–922
American Psychiatric Association (1987) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd edn, rev. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edn. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
Areán PA, Reynolds CFI (2005) The impact of psychosocial factors on late-life depression. Biol Psychiatry 58:277–282
Becker AE, Kleinman A (2013) Mental health and the global agenda. N Engl J Med 369:66–73
Beekman ATF, Bremmer MA, Deeg DJ, van Balkom AJ, Smit JH (1998) Anxiety disorders in later life: a report from the longitudinal aging study Amsterdam. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 13:717–726
Beekman ATF, Geerlings SW, Deeg DJH, Smit JH, Schoevers RS (2002) The natural history of late-life depression: a 6-year prospective study in the community. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59:605–611
Ben-Arie O, Welman M, Teggin AF (1990) The depressed elderly living in the community. Br J Psychiatry 157:425–427
Birks J, Grimley Evans J (2007) Ginkgo biloba for cognitive impairment and dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2:CD003120
Bland R, Newman S, Orn H (1988) Prevalence of anxiety disorders in the elderly in Edmonton. Acta Psychiatr Scand 338:57–63
Blay SL, Andreoli SB, Fillenbaum GG, Gastal FL (2007) Depression morbidity in later life: prevalence and correlates in a developing country. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 15:790–799
Blazer DG, Hughes DC, George LK (1987) The epidemiology of depression in an elderly population. Gerontologist 27:281–287
Borenstein AR, Copenhaver CI, Mortimer JA (2006) Early-life risk factors for Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2:63–72
Brayne C, Richardson K, Matthews FE, Fleming J, Hunter S, Xuereb JH, Paykel E, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, Huppert FA, O’Sullivan A, Dening T (2009) The Cambridge City Over-75 s Cohort Cc75c Study Neuropathology Collaboration. Neuropathological correlates of dementia in over-80-year-old brain donors from the population-based Cambridge City over-75 s cohort (CC75C) study. J Alzheimers Dis 18:645–658
Bridle C, Spanjers K, Patel S, Atheron NM, Lamb SE (2012) Effect of exercise on depression severity in older people: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Br J Psychiatry 201:180–185
Brilman EI, Ormel J (2001) Life events, difficulties and onset of depressive episodes in later life. Psychol Med 31:859–869
Brookmeyer R, Corrada MM, Curriero FC, Kawas C (2002) Survival following a diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. Arch Neurol 59:1764–1767
Byers AL, Yaffe K, Covinsky KE, Friedman MB, Bruce ML (2010) High occurrence of mood and anxiety disorders among older adults: the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67:489–496
Byrne G, Pachana NA (2010) Anxiety and depression in the elderly: do we know any more? Curr Opin Psychiatry 23:504–509
Cairney J, Corna LM, Veldhuizen S, Herrmann N, Streiner DL (2008) Comorbid depression and anxiety in later life: patterns of association, subjective well-being, and impairment. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 16:201–208
Canadian Study of Health and Aging Working Group. Canadian Study of Health and Aging: study methods and prevalence of dementia (1994) Canadian Medical Association Journal 150:899–913
Chandra V, Pandav R, Dodge HH, Johnston JM, Belle SH, DeKosky ST, Ganguli M (2001) Incidence of Alzheimer’s disease in a rural community in India: the Indo-US study. Neurology 57:985–989
Chauhan A (2009) Leadership program for young psychiatrists: an experience of a lifetime. Asia Pac Psychiatry 1:46–47
Chee KY, Zakaria H, Rusli AR, Tassniyom K, Kua EH (2011) Short course on leadership and professional development for young psychiatrists and trainees in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Asia Pac Psychiatry 3:157–178
Chen R, Li W, Zhi H, Xia Q, Copeland JR, Hemingway H (2005) Depression in older people in rural China. Arch Intern Med 165:2019–2025
Chiu HFK, Lam LCW, Chi I, Leung T, Li SW, Law WT, Chung DWS, Fung HHL, Kan PS, Lum M, Ng J, Lau J (1998) Prevalence of dementia in Chinese elderly in Hong Kong. Neurology 50:1002–1009
Chiu E, Ames D, Draper B, Snowdon J (2009) Depressive disorders in the elderly. In: Herman H, Maj M, Sartorius N (eds) Depressive disorders, 3rd edn. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester
Chiu HFK, Sato M, Kua EH, Lee MS, Yu X, Ouyang WC, Yang YK, Sartorius N (2014) Renaming dementia – an East Asian perspective. Int Psychogeriatr 26:885–887
Chodosh J, Kado DM, Seeman TE, Karlamangla AS (2007) Depressive symptoms as a predictor of cognitive decline. MacArthur studies of successful aging. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 15:406–415
Chong MY, Chen C, Tsang H, Yeh T, Lee Y, Chen C, Lee Y, Tang T, Lo H (2001) Community study of depression in old age in Taiwan: prevalence, life events and socio-demographic correlates. Br J Psychiatry 178:29–35
Chong MY, Tan CH, Shinfuku N, Yang SY, Sim K, Fuji S, Chung EK, Kua EH (2010) Prescribing antipsychotic drugs for inpatients with schizophrenia in Asia: comparison of REAP-2001 and REAP-2004 studies. Asia Pac Psychiatry 2:77–84
Chou KL (2009) Specific phobia in older adults: evidence from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 17:376–386
Cole MG, Dendukuri N (2003) Risk factors for depression among elderly community subjects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 160:1147
Copeland JRM, Kelleher MJ, Kellett JM (1976) A semi-structured clinical interview for the assessment of diagnosis and mental state in the elderly. The Geriatric Mental State schedule. Development and reliability. Psychol Med 6:439–449
Copeland JR, Dewey ME, Griffiths-Jones HM (1986) Computerised psychiatric diagnosis system and case nomenclature for elderly subjects: GMS and AGECAT. Psychol Med 16:89–99
Copeland J, Dewey M, Wood N, Searle R, Davidson I, Mc William C (1987) Range of mental illness among the elderly in the community: prevalence in Liverpool using the GMS-AGECAT package. Br J Psychiatry 150:815–822
Copeland JR, Davidson IA, Dewey ME, Gilmore C, Lankin BA, McWilliam C, Saunders PA, Scott A, Sharma V, Sullivan C (1992) Alzheimer’s disease, other dementias, depression and pseudodementia: prevalence, incidence and three-year outcome in Liverpool. Br J Psychiatry 161:230–239
Copeland JRM, Dewey ME, Scott A, Gilmore C, Larkin BA, Cleave N, McCracken CFM, McKibbin PE (1998) Schizophrenia and delusional disorder in older age: community prevalence, incidence, comorbidity, and outcome. Schizophr Bull 24:153–161
Copeland JR, Beckman AT, Dewey ME, Hooijer C, Jordan A, Lawlor BA, Lobo A, Magnusson H, Mann AH, Meller I, Prince MJ, Reischies F, Turrina C, deVries MW, Wilson KC (1999) Depression in Europe geographical distribution among older people. Br J Psychiatry 174:312–321
De Silva HA, Gunatilake SB, Smith AD (2003) Prevalence of dementia in a semi-urban population in Sri Lanka: report from a regional survey. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 18:711–715
Denihan A, Kirby M, Bruce Z, Coakley D, Lawlor B (2000) Three-year prognosis of depression in the community-dwelling elderly. Br J Psychiatry 176:453–452
Devanand DP, Sano M, Tang MX et al (1996) Depressed mood and the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease in the elderly living in the community. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53:175–182
Di Carlo A, Lamassa M, Baldereschi M, Inzitari M, Scafato E, Farchi G, Inzitari D (2007) CIND and MCI in the Italian elderly: frequency, vascular risk factors, progression to dementia. Neurology 68:1909–1916
Djernes JK (2006) Prevalence and predictors of depression in populations of elderly: a review. Acta Psychiatr Scand 113:372–387
Evers MM, Samuels SC, Lantz M, Khan K, Brickman AM, Marin DB (2002) The prevalence, diagnosis and treatment of depression in dementia patients in chronic care facilities in the last six months of life. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 17:464–472
Farrag A, Farwiz HM, Kher EH et al (1998) Prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementing disorders: Assiut-Upper Egypt study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 9:323–328
Feart C, Samieri C, Rondeau V et al (2009) Adherence to a Mediterranean diet, cognitive decline, and risk of dementia. JAMA 302:638–648
Feart C, Samieri CC, Barberger-Gateau P (2015) Mediterranean diet and cognitive health: an update of available knowledge. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care 18:51–62
Feng L, Li J, Yap KB, Kua EH, Ng TP (2009) Vitamin B-12, apolipoprotein E genotype, and cognitive performance in community-living older adults: evidence of a gene-micronutrient interaction. Am J Clin Nutr 89:1263–1268
Feng L, Gwee X, Kua EH, Ng TP (2010) Cognitive function and tea consumption in community dwelling older Chinese in Singapore. J Nutr Health Aging 14:433–438
Feng L, Cao Y, Zhang Y, Wee ST, Kua EH (2011) Psychological therapy with Chinese patients. Asia Pac Psychiatry 3:167–172
Ferri CP, Prince M, Brayne C et al (2005) Global prevalence of dementia: a Delphi consensus study. Lancet 366:2112–2117
Fitzpatrick AL, Kuller IH, Ives DG, Lopez OL, Jaqust W, Breitner JC, Jones B, Lyketsos C, Dulberg C (2004) Incidence and prevalence of dementia in the cardiovascular health study. J Am Geriatr Soc 52:195–204
Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR (1975) Mini-mental state. A practical method of grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatry Res 12:189–198
Forsell Y, Winblad B (1998) Major depression in a population of demented and nondemented older persons: prevalence and correlates. J Am Geriatr Soc 46:27–30
Forsell Y, Winblad B (1999) Incidence of major depression in a very elderly population. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 14:368–372
Forsell Y, Jorm AF, von Strauss E, Winblad B (1995) Prevalence and correlates of depression in a population of nonagenarians. Br J Psychiatry 167:61–64
Fratiglioni L, Paillard-Borg S, Winblad B (2004) An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia. Lancet Neurol 3:343–353
Gallo JJ, Coyne JC (2000) The challenge of depression in late life – bridging science and service in primary care. JAMA 284:1570–1572
Ganguli M, Dodge HH, Shen C, Pandav RS, DeKosky ST (2005) Alzheimer’s disease and mortality: a 15-year epidemiological study. Arch Neurol 62:779–784
Gerety MB, Williams JW, Mulrow CD, Cornell JE, Kadri AA, Rosenberg J, Chiodo LK, Long M (1994) Performance of case-finding tools for depression in the nursing home: influence of clinical and functional characteristics and selection of optimal threshold score. J Am Geriatr Soc 42:1103–1109
Gill SS, Seitz DP (2015) Lifestyles and cognitive health: what older individuals can do to optimize cognitive outcomes. JAMA 314:774–775
Gillette-Guyonnet S, Andrieu S, Dantoine T, Dartigues JF, Touchon J, Vellas B (2009) Commentary on ‘A roadmap for the prevention of dementia II. Leon Thal symposium 2008’. The multidomain Alzheimer Preventive Trial (MAPT): a new approach to the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement 5:114–121
Go SM, Lee KS, Seo SW, Chin J, Kang SJ, Moon SY, Na DL, Cheong HK (2013) Survival of Alzheimer’s disease patients in Korea. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 35:219–228
Goh LG, Kua EH, Chiang HD (2015) Ageing in Singapore: the next 50 years. Gerontological Society, Singapore
Goldstein BI, Herrmann N, Shulman KI (2006) Comorbidity in bipolar disorder among the elderly: results from an epidemiological community sample. Am J Psychiatry 163:319–321
Grenier S, Préville M, Boyer R, O’Connork, Scientific Committee of the ESA Study (2009) Prevalence and correlates of obsessive-compulsive disorder among older adults living in the community. J Anxiety Disord 23:858–865
Guk HS, Kim JK, Cho MJ (2003) Community study of dementia in the older Korean rural population. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 37:606–612
Gureje O, Ogunniyi A, Baiyewu O, Price B, Unverzagt FW, Evans RM, Smith-Gamble V, Lane KA, Gao S, Hall K, Hendrie HC, Murrell JR (2006) APOE ἐ4 is not associated with Alzheimer’s disease in elderly Nigerians. Ann Neurol 59:182–185
Gureje O, Kola L, Afolabi E (2007) Epidemiology of major depressive disorder in elderly Nigerians in the Ibadan Study of Ageing: a community-based study. Lancet 370:957–964
Gurland BJ, Copeland JRM, Kelleher MJ, Kuriansky J, Sharpe L et al (1983) The mind and mood of ageing. The mental health problems of the community elderly in New York and London. Haworth Press, London
Hackett ML, Yapa C, Parag V, Anderson CS (2005) Frequency of depression after stroke: a systematic review of observational studies. Stroke 36:1330–1340
Haseagawa K, Homma A, Imai Y (1986) An epidemiological study of age-related dementia in the community. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1:45–55
Henderson AS, Korten AE, Levings C, Jorm AF, Christensen H, Jacomb PA, Rodgers B (1998) Psychotic symptoms in the elderly: a prospective study in a population sample. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 13:484–492
Hendrie HC, Osuntokun BO, Hall KS, Oqunniyi AO, Hui SL, Unverzaqt FW, Gureje O, Rodenberg CA, Baiyewu O, Musick BS (1995) Prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease and dementia in two communities: Nigerian Africans and African Americans. Am J Psychiatry 152:1485–1492
Hendrie HC, Ogunniyi A, Hall KS (2001) Incidence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in 2 communities: Yoruba residing in Ibadan, Nigeria, and African Americans residing in Indianapolis, Indiana. JAMA 285:739–747
Heyman A, Peterson B, Fillenbaum G, Pieper C (1996) The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s disease (CERAD). Demographic and clinical predictors of survival in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 46:656–660
Ho SHC, Ng TP, Feng L, Johnson F, Mahendran R, Kua EH (2014) Co-existing medical co-morbidity and depression: multiplicative effects on health outcomes in older adults. Int Psychogeriatr 26:1221–1229
Hofman A, Ott A, Breteler MM, Bots ML, Slooter AJ, van Harskamp F, van Duijn CN, van Broeckhoven C, Grobbee DE (1997) Atherosclerosis, apolipoprotein E, and prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in the Rotterdam study. Lancet 349:151–154
Hughes CP, Berg L, Danziger WL, Coben LA, Martin RL (1982) A new clinical scale for the staging of dementia. Br J Psychiatry 140:566–572
Ikeda M, Fukuhara R, Shigenobu K, Hokoishi K, Maki N, Nebu A et al (2004) Dementia associated mental and behavioural disturbances in elderly people in the community: findings from the first Nakayama study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:146–148
Jellinger KA, Attems J (2010) Prevalence of dementia in the oldest-old: an autopsy study. Acta Neuropathol 119:421–433
Jeste D, Hays J, Steffens D (2006) Clinical correlates of anxious depression among elderly patients with depression. J Affect Disord 90:37–41
Jongenelis K, Pot AM, Eisses AMH, Beckman AT, Kluiter H, Ribbe MW (2004) Prevalence and risk indication of depression in elderly nursing home patients: the AGED study. J Affect Disord 83:135–142
Jorm AF, Jolley D (1998) The incidence of dementia: a meta-analysis. Neurology 51:728–733
Jorm AF, Korten AE, Henderson AS (1987) The prevalence of dementia: a quantitative integration of the literature. Acta Psychiatr Scand 76:465–479
Judd LL, Rapaport MH, Paulus MP, Brown JL (1994) Subsyndromal symptomatic depression: a new mood disorder? J Clin Psychiatry 55(Suppl):18–28
Kalaria RN, Maestre GE, Arizaga R, Friedland RP, Galasko D et al (2008) Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia in developing countries: prevalence, management and risk factors. Lancet 7:812–826
Karlsson B, Klenfeldt IF, Sigstrὄm R, Waern M, Ostlings, Gustafson D, Skoog I (2009) Prevalence of social phobia in non-demented elderly from a Swedish population study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 17:127–135
Keith SJ, Regier DA, Rae DS (1989) Schizophrenic disorders. In: Robins LN, Regier DA (eds) Psychiatric disorders in America. The Free Press, New York
Kessler RC, Petukhova M, Sampson NA, Zaslasky AM, Wittchen HU (2012) Twelve-month and lifetime prevalence and lifetime morbid risk of anxiety and mood disorders in the United States. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res 21:169–184
King-Kallimanis B, Gu AM, Kohn R (2009) Comorbidity of depressive and anxiety disorders for older Americans in the national comorbidity survey-replication. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 17:782–792
Kivelἅ SL, Kongas-Savario P, Laippala P, Pahkala K, Kesti E (1996) Social and psychosocial factors predicting depression in old age: a longitudinal study. Int Psychogeriatr 8:635–644
Kivipelto M, Ngandu T, Laatikainen T, Winblad B, Soininen H, Tuomilehto J (2006) Risk score for the prediction of dementia risk in 20 years among middle aged people: a longitudinal, population-based study. Lancet Neurol 5:735–741
Kua EH (1992) A community study of mental disorders in elderly Singaporean Chinese using the GMS-AGECAT package. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 26:502–506
Kua EH (1993) The depressed elderly Chinese living in the community: a five-year follow-up study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 8:427–430
Kua EH, Ko SM (1995) Prevalence of dementia among elderly Chinese and Malay residents of Singapore. Int Psychogeriatr 7:439–446
Kua EH, Ko SM, Fones SLC, Tan SL (1997) Epidemiology of depression in elderly Chinese living in Singapore. JAMA (Suppl) 13:29–32
Kua EH, Ho E, Tan HY, Tsoi C, Thng C, Mahendran R (2014) The natural history of dementia. Psychogeriatrics 14:196–201
Kvaal K, McDougall FA, Brayne C, Matthews FE, Dewey ME, MRC CFAS (2008) Co-occurrence of anxiety and depressive disorders in a community sample of older people: results from the MRC CFAS (Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study). Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 23:229–237
Lancet Global Mental Health Group (2007) Scale up services for global mental health: a call for action. Lancet 370:1241–1252
Larson EB, Langa KM (2008) The rising tide of dementia worldwide. Lancet 372:430–432
Lenze E, Rogers J, Martire L, Mulsant B, Rollman B, Dew M, Schulz R, Reynolds C (2001) The association of late-life depression and anxiety with physical disability. A review of the literature and prospectus for future research. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 9:113–135
Li G, Shen YC, Chen CH, Zhao YW, Li SR, Lu MG (1989) An epidemiological survey of age-related dementia in an urban area of Beijing. Acta Psychiatr Scand 79:557–563
Li S, Yan F, Li G, Chen C, Zhang W, Liu J, Jia X, Shen Y (2007) Is the dementia rate increasing in Beijing? Prevalence and incidence of dementia 10 years later in an urban elderly population. Acta Psychiatr Scand 115:73–79
Li ZB, Zheng LN, Yang JJ, Zhong N, Liu L, Chiu E, Zhao M (2013) Teachers of psychiatry meeting on evaluation to improve quality of research, held in Shanghai, China, organized by the Pacific Rim College of Psychiatrists. Asia Pac Psychiatry 5:214–216
Lim LL, Ng TP (2010) Living alone, lack of a confidant and psychological well-being of elderly women in Singapore: the mediating role of loneliness. Asia Pac Psychiatry 2:33–40
Lim HXL, Chang WC, Yu X, Chiu H, Chong MY, Kua EH (2011) Depression in Chinese elderly populations. Asia Pac Psychiatry 3:46–53
Lin JC, Karno MP, Grella CE, Ray LA, Liao DH, Moore AA (2014) Psychiatric correlates of alcohol and tobacco use disorders in US adults 65 years and older: results from the 2001–2002 National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 22:1356–1363
Lindesay J, Briggs K, Murphy E (1989) The guy’s/age concern survey: prevalence rates of cognitive impairment, depression and anxiety in an urban elderly community. Br J Psychiatry 155:317–329
Lindesay J, Briggs K, Murphy E (1996) The guy’s/age concern survey. Prevalence rates of cognitive impairment, depression and anxiety in an urban elderly community. Br J Psychiatry 11:65–70
Liu CK, Lai CL, Tai CT, Lin RT, Yen YY, Howng SL (1996) Incidence and subtypes of dementia in southern Taiwan: impact of socio-demographic factors. Neurology 50:1572–1579
Livingston G, Hawkins A, Graham N, Blizard B, Mann A (1990) The Gospel Oak Study: prevalence rates of dementia, depression and activity limitation among elderly residents in inner London. Psychol Med 20:137–146
Livingston G, Kitchen G, Manela M, Katona C, Copeland J (2001) Persecutory symptoms and perceptual disturbance in a community sample of older people: the Islington study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 16:462–478
Lobo A, Saz P, Marcos G, Dia J-L, De-La-Camara C (1995) The prevalence of dementia and depression in the elderly community in a southern European population. The Zaragoza study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52:497–506
Lobo A, Launer LJ, Fratiglioni L (2000) Prevalence of dementia and major subtypes in Europe: a collaborative study of population-based cohorts. Neurologic Diseases in the Elderly Research Group. Neurology 54:S4–S9
Luchsinger JA, Mayeux R (2004) Dietary factors and Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet Neurol 3:579–587
Luchsinger JA, Tang MX, Stern Y, Shea S, Mayeux R (2001) Diabetes mellitus and risk of Alzheimer’s disease and dementia with stroke in a multiethnic cohort. Am J Epidemiol 54:635–641
Ma X, Xiang Y, Li S, Xiang Y, Guo H, Hou Y, Cai Z, Li Z, Li Z, Tao Y, Dang W, Wu X, Deng J, Ungvari GS, Chiu HFK (2008) Prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of depression in an elderly population living with family members in Beijing, China. Psychol Med 38:1723–1730
Manton KC, Gu XL, Ukraintseva SV (2005) Declining prevalence of dementia in the U.S. elderly population. Adv Gerontol 16:30–37
Matsui Y, Tanizaki Y, Arima H, Yomenoto K, Doi Y, Ninomiya T, Sasaki K, Lida M, Iwaki T, Kanba S, Kiyohara Y (2009) Incidence and survival of dementia in a general population of Japanese elderly: the Hisayama study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 80:366–370
Matthews FE, Arthur A, Barnes LE et al (2013) A two-decade comparison of prevalence of dementia in individuals aged 65 years and older from three geographical areas of England: results of the Cognitive Function and Ageing Study I and II. Lancet 382:1405–1412. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1311405
McDougall FA, Kvaal K, Matthews FE, Paykel E, Jones PB, Dewey ME, Brayne C (2007) Prevalence of depression in older people in England and Wales: the MRC CFA study. Psychol Med 37:1787–1795
McKhann G, Drachman DA, Folstein M, Katzman R, Price DL, Stadlan EM (1984) Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease – report of the NINCDS-ADRDA work group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 34:939–944
Meesters PD, Lieuwe DH, Comijs HC, Stek ML, Smeets-Janssen et al (2012) Schizophrenia spectrum disorders in later life: prevalence and distribution of age at onset and sex in a dutch catchment area. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 20:18–28
Meller I, Fichter MM, Schröppel H (1997) Risk factors and psychosocial consequences in depression of octo- and nonagenarians: results of an epidemiological study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 247:278–287
Mizutani T, Shimada J (1992) Neuropathological background of twenty-seven centenarian brains. J Neurol Sci 108:168–177
Mojtabai R, Olpson M (2004) Major depression in community-dwelling middle-aged and older adults: prevlance 2- and 4-years follow-up symptoms. Psychol Med 34:623–634
Molera AE, Pino-Ramirez G, Maestre GE (2007) High prevalence of dementia in a Caribbean population. Neuroepidemiology 29:107–112
Molsa PK, Martila RJ, Rinne UK (1995) Long-term survival and predictors of mortality in Alzheimer’s disease and multi-infarct dementia. Acta Neurol Scand 91:159–164
Morris JC (1993) The Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR): current vision and scoring rules. Neurology 43:2412–2414
Murrell JR, Price B, Lane KA, Baiyewu O, Gurejo O, Oqunniyi A, Unverzaqt FW et al (2006) Association of apolipoprotein E genotype and Alzheimer disease in African Americans. Arch Neurol 63:431–434
Newman SC (1999) Prevalence of depression in vascular dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in a population sample. J Affect Disord 52:169–176
Newman SC, Sheldon CT, Bland RC (1998) Prevalence of depression in an elderly community sample: a comparison of GMS-AGECAT and DSM-IV diagnostic criteria. Psychol Med 28:1339–1345
Ng TP, Chiam PC, Lee T, Chua HC, Lim L, Kua EH (2006) Curry consumption and cognitive function in the elderly. Am J Epidemiol 164:898–906
Ngandu T, Lehtisalo J, Solomon A, Levalahti E, Antikaninen R et al (2015) A 2-year multidomain intervention of diet, exercise, cognitive training and vascular risk monitoring versus control to prevent cognitive decline in at-risk elderly people (FINGER): randomized controlled trial. Lancet 385:2255–2263
Nielsen JA, Nielsen J (1989) Prevalence investigation of mental illness in the aged in 1961, 1972, and 1977 in a geographically delimited Danish population group. Acta Psychiatr Scand 79:95–104
Nitrini R, Caramelli P, Jr H, Bahia VS, Caixeta LF, Radanovic M, Anghinah R et al (2004) Incidence of dementia in a community-dwelling Brazilian population. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 18:241–246
Norton MC, Skoog I, Toone L, Corcoran C, Tschanz JT, Lisota RD, Hart AD, Zandi PP, Breitner JCS, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Steffens DC (2006) Three-year incidence of first-onset depressive syndrome in a population sample of older adults: the Cache County Study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 14:237–245
Norton S, Matthews FE, Barnes DE, Yaffe K, Brayne C (2014) Potential for primary prevention of Alzheimer’s disease: an analysis of population-based data. Lancet Neurol 13:788–794
Osborn DP, Fletcher AE, Smeeth L, Stirling S, Bulpitt CJ, Breeze E, Ng ES, Nunes M, Jones D, Tulloch A (2003) Factors associated with depression in a representative sample of 14217 people aged 75 and over in the United Kingdom: results from the MRC trial of assessment and management of older people in the community. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 18:623–630
Östling S, Skoog I (2002) Psychotic symptoms and paranoid ideation in a non-demented population-based sample of the very old. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59:53–59
Ott A, Breteler MM, de Bruyne MC, van Harskamp F, Grobbee DE, Hofman A (1997) Atrial fibrillation and dementia in a population-based study. The Rotterdam study. Stroke 28:316–321
Ownby RL, Crocco E, Acevedo A, Vineeth J, Loewenstein D (2006) Depressed mood and risk for Alzheimer disease: systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:530–538
Palsson SP, Ostling S, Skoog I (2001) The incidence of first-onset depression in a population followed from the age of 70 to 85. Psychol Med 31:1159–1168
Patten SB, Wang JL, Willians JVA, Currie S, Beck CA et al (2006) Descriptive epidemiology pf major depression in Canada. Can J Psychiatry 51:84–90
Piguet O, Grayson DA, Creasey H, Bennett HP, Brooks WS, Waite LM, Broe GA (2003) Vascular risk factors, cognition and dementia incidence over 6 years in the Sydney older persons study. Neuroepidemiology 22:165–171
Pincus HA, Davis WW, McQueen LE (1999) ‘Subthreshold’ mental disorders: a review and synthesis of studies on minor depression and other ‘brand names’. Br J Psychiatry 174:288–296
Plassman BL, Langa KM, Fisher GG, Heeringa SG, Weir DR, Ofstedal MB, Burke JR, Hurd MD, Potter GG, Rodgers WL, Steffens DC, Willis RJ, Wallace RB (2007) Prevalence of dementia in the United States: the aging, demographics, and memory study. Neuroepidemiology 29:125–132
Preisig M, Merikangsa KR, Angst J (2001) Clinical significance and comorbidity of subthreshold depression and anxiety in the community. Acta Psychiatr Scand 104:96–103
Préville M, Boyer R, Grenier S, Dubé M, Voyer P, Punti R, Baril MC, Streiner DL, Cairney J et al (2008) The epidemiology of psychiatric disorders in Quebec’s older adult population. Can J Psychiatry 53:822–832
Prince M (2010) The contribution of cross-cultural research to dementia care and policy: an overview focusing on the work of the 10/66 Dementia Research Group. In: Krishnamoorthy ES, Prince M, Cummings JL (eds) Dementia – a global approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Prince MJ, Harwood RH, Blizard RA, Thomas A, Mann AH (1997a) Impairment, disability and handicap as risk factors for depression in old age. The Gospel Oak Project V. Psychol Med 27:311–321
Prince MJ, Harwood RH, Blizard RA, Thomas A, Mann AH (1997b) Social support deficits, loneliness and life events as risk factors for depression in old age. The Gospal Oak Project. Psychol Med 27:323–332
Prince M, Acosta D, Chiu H, Scazufca M, Varghese M (2003) Dementia diagnosis in developing countries: a cross-cultural validation study. Lancet 361:909–917
Prince M, Bryce R, Albanese E, Wimo A, Ribeiro W, Ferri CP (2013) The global prevalence of dementia: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Alzheimers Dement 9:63–75
Qiu C, Xu W, Fratiglioni L (2010) Vascular and psychosocial factors in Alzheimer’s disease: epidemiological evidence toward intervention. J Alzheimers Dis 20:689–697
Quiroga P, Calvo C, Albala C, Urquidi J, Santos JL, Pérez H, Klaassen G (1999) Apolipoprotein E polymorphism in elderly Chilean people with Alzheimer’s disease. Neuroepidemiology 18:48–52
Rawtaer I, Mahendran R, Yu J, Fam J, Feng L, Kua EH (2015) Psychosocial interventions with art, music, tai chi and mindfulness for subsyndromal depression and anxiety in older adults: a naturalistic study in Singapore. Asia Pac Psychiatry 7:240–250
Regier DA, Boyd JH, Burke JD, Rae DS, Myers JM, Krammer M (1988) One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry 45:977–986
Regier DA, Farmer ME, Rae DS, Myers JK, Kramer M, Robins LN, George LK, Kamo M, Locke BZ (1993) One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States and sociodemographhic characteristics: the Epidemiologic Catchment Area study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 88:35–47
Ritchie K, Artero S, Beluche I, Ancelin ML, Mann A, Dupuy AM, Malatosse A, Boulenger JP (2004) Prevalence of DSM-IV psychiatric disorder in the French elderly population. Br J Psychiatry 184:147–152
Roberts RE, Kaplan GA, Shema SJ, Trawbridge WJ (1997) Does growing old increase the risk for depression. Am J Psychiatry 154:1384–1390
Rodriguez JJL, Ferri CP, Ascota D, Guerra M, Huang Y, Jacob KS, Krishnamoorthy ES, Salas A, Acosta I, Dewey ME et al (2008) The prevalence of dementia in Latin America, India and China. A 10/66 Dementia Research Group population-based survey. Lancet 372:464–474
Sartorius N (1988) Cross-cultural and international collaboration in mental health research and action. Experience from the mental health programme of the World Health Organisation. Acta Psychiatr Scand 78(Suppl 344):71–74
Sartorius N (2002) Fighting for mental health. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Sartorius N, Chiu HFK, Kua EH, Lee MS, Ouyang WC, Sato M, Yang YK, Yu X (2014) Name change for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 40:255–258
Satizabal CL, Beiser AS, Chouraki V, Chene G, Dufouil C, Seshadri S (2016) Incidence of dementia over three decades in the Framingham Heart study. N Engl J Med 374:523–532
Saunders AM, Schmader K, Breitner J, Benson MD, Brown WT, Goldfarb L, Goldqaber D, Manwaring MG et al (1993) Apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele distributions in late-onset Alzheimer’s disease and in other amyloid-forming diseases. Lancet 342:710–711
Scarmeas N, Luchsinger JA, Schupf N, Brickman AM, Cosentinos TMX, Stern Y (2009) Physical activity, diet, and risk of Alzheimer disease. JAMA 302:627–637
Schneider JA, Aggarwal NT, Barnes L, Boyle P, Bennett DA (2009) The neuropathology of older persons with and without dementia from community versus clinic cohorts. J Alzheimers Dis 18:691–701
Shaji S, Bose S, Verghese A (2005) Prevalence of dementia in an urban population in Kerala, India. Br J Psychiatry 186:136–140
Shulman K, Herrmann N, Brodaty H, Chiu H, Lawlor B, Ritchie K, Scanlan JM (2006) IPA survey of brief cognitive screening instruments. Int Psychogeriatr 18:281–294
Sigstrὄm R, Östling S, Karlsson B, Waern M, Gustafson D, Skoog I (2011) A population-based study on phobic fears and DSM-IV specific phobia in 70-year olds. J Anxiety Disord 25:148–153
Skoog I, Lernfelt B, Landahl S, Palmertz B, Andreasson LA, Nilsson L (1996) 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia. Lancet 347:1141–1145
Snowdon J (1994) The epidemiology of affective disorders in old age. In: Chiu E, Ames D (eds) Functional psychiatric disorders of the elderly. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Snowdon J, Burgess E, Vaughan R, Miller R (1996) Use of antidepressants, and the prevalence of depression and cognitive impairment in Sydney nursing homes. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 11:599–606
Soh KC, Kumar R, Niti M, Kua EH, Ng TP (2008) Subsyndromal depression in old age: clonical significance and impact in a multi-ethnic community sample of elderly Singaporeans. Int Psychogeriatr 1:188–200
Tschanz JT, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Lyketsos CG, Corcoran C, Green RC, Hayden K, Norton MC, Zandi PP, Toone L, West NA et al (2006) Conversion to dementia from mild cognitive disorder: the Cache Country study. Neurology 67:229–234
Van Dijk PTM, Dippel DWS, Habbena JDF (1991) Survival of patients with dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 39:603–610
Venketasubramanian N, Sahadevan S, Kua EH, Chen CPL, Ng TP (2010) Interethnic differences in dementia epidemiology: global and Asia-pacific. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 30:492–498
Wang Y, Chen WJ, Li YY, Wang ZY, Chen J, Xu YF (2011) Teachers of psychiatry meeting in Shanghai: a leadership training course. Asia Pac Psychiatry 4:87–89
Weissman MM, Leaf PJ, Tischler GL, Blazer DG, Karno M, Bruce ML, Florio LP (1988) Affective disorders in five United States communities. Psychol Med 18:141–153
Whitmer RA, Gunderson EP, Barrett-Conner E, Quesenberry CP Jr, Yaffe K (2005) Obesity in middle age and future risk of dementia: a 27-year longitudinal population based study. BMJ 330:1360
Wing JK, Cooper JE, Sartorius N (1974) The measurement and classification of psychiatric symptoms. Cambridge University Press, London
World Health Organization (1980) International classification of diseases, 9th revision (ICD9). World Health Organization, Geneva
World Health Organization (1992) The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. World Health Organization, Geneva
Wu DX, Feng L, Yao SQ, Tian XF, Mahendran R, Kua EH (2014) The early dementia prevention programme in Singapore. Lancet Psychiatry 1:9–11
Xavier FM, Ferraza MP, Argimon I, Trentini CM, Poyares D, Bertollucei PH, Bisol LW, Moriquchi EH (2002) The DSM-IV ‘Minor depression’ disorder in the oldest old: prevalence rate, sleep patterns, memory function and quality of life in elderly people of Italian descent in Southern Brazil. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 17:107–116
Xiang YT, Dickerson F, Kreyenbuhl J, Ungvari GS, Wang CY, Si TM et al (2012) Common use of antipsychotic polypharmacy in older Asian patients with schizophrenia between 2001 and 2009. J Clin Psychopharmacol 32:809–813
Zhang ZX, Zahner GE, Roman GC, Liu J, Hong Z, Qu QM, Liu XH, Zhang XJ, Zhou B, Wu CB, Tang MN, Hong X, Li H (2005) Dementia subtypes in China: prevalence in Beijing, Xian, Shanghai, and Chengdu. Arch Neurol 62:447–453
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this entry
Cite this entry
Kua, E.H., Mahendran, R. (2016). Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (Including Cross-Cultural Comparisons). In: Chiu, H., Shulman, K. (eds) Mental Health and Illness of the Elderly. Mental Health and Illness Worldwide. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0370-7_5-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0370-7_5-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-10-0370-7
Online ISBN: 978-981-10-0370-7
eBook Packages: Springer Reference Behavioral Science and PsychologyReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences