Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Australian Chirodropid Cubozoan Jellyfish Envenomation

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Clinical Toxinology in Australia, Europe, and Americas

Part of the book series: Toxinology ((TOXI))

Abstract

The Australian box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri, is a large dangerous jellyfish inhabiting the waters of northern Australia and nearby Southeast Asia. Despite intensive research over half a century, limited knowledge exists about its venom and toxins and of a related but much less potent chirodropid species Chiropsella bronzei. The jellyfish kills prey rapidly and may severely injure or kill humans with an array of potent toxins. The clinical treatment of human victims is supportive with limited assistance from an existing antivenom. The principal toxins are proteins of around 40–45 kDa which probably perforate cell membranes leading to immediate lysis and subsequent loss of function of vital organs and tissues including cardiac function. In addition, smaller proteins probably damage the function of excitable tissues by perturbations of function of voltage-gated ion channels. These mechanisms occur across the phylum Cnidaria whose members have homologous toxins. No specific treatment for the human victim exists, but effective treatments might be developed from observations that suggest that the poration and ion-channel effects of the toxins are susceptible to blockade with metallic compounds.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 379.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Bailey PM, Bakker AJ, Seymour JE, Wilce JA. A functional comparison of the venom of three Australian jellyfish – Chironex fleckeri, Chiropsalmus sp., and gesCarybdea xaymacana – on cytosolic Ca2+, haemolysis and Artemia sp. lethality. Toxicon. 2005;45:233–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes JH. Observations on jellyfish stingings in North Queensland. Med J Aust. 1960;2:993–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnes JH. Studies on three venomous Cubomedusae. In: Rees WJ, editor. The Cnidaria and their evolution. New York: Academic; 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnes JH. Extraction of cnidarian venom from living tentacle. In: Russell FE, Saunders PR, editors. Animal toxins. Oxford: Pergamon Press; 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baxter EH, Marr AGM. Sea wasp (Chironex fleckeri) venom: lethal, hemolytic and dermonecrotic properties. Toxicon. 1969;7:195–210.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter EH, Marr AGM. Sea wasp (Chironex fleckeri) antivenene: neutralizing potency against the venom of three other jellyfish species. Toxicon. 1974;12:223–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter EH, Marr AGM, Lane WR. Sea wasp (Chironex fleckeri) toxin - experimental immunity. In: Devries A, Kochwa E, editors. Toxins of animal and plant origin, vol. 3. New York: Gordon and Breach; 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beadnell CE, Rider TA, Williamson JA, Fenner PJ. Management of a major box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) sting. Lessons from the first minutes and hours. Med J Aust. 1992;156:655–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom DA, Burnett JW, Alderslade P. Partial purification of box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) nematocyst venom isolated at the beachside. Toxicon. 1998;36:1075–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom DA, Burnett JW, Hebel JR, Alderslade P. Effects of verapamil and CSL antivenom on Chironex fleckeri (Box-jellyfish) induced mortality. Toxicon. 1999;37:1621–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brinkman D, Burnell J. Identification, cloning and sequencing of two major venom proteins from the box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon. 2007;50:850–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brinkman D, Burnell J. Partial purification of cytolytic venom proteins from the box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon. 2008;51:853–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brinkman DL, Burnell JN. Biochemical and molecular characterization of cubozoan protein toxins. Toxicon. 2009;54:1162–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brinkman DL, Aziz A, Loukas A, Potriquet J, Seymour J, Mulvenna J. Venom proteome of the box Jellyfish Chironex fleckeri. PLoS One. 2012;7:e47866.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brinkman DL, Konstantakopoulos N, McInerney BV, et al. Chironex fleckeri (Box Jellyfish) venom proteins. Expansion of a cnidarian toxin family that elicits variable cytolytic and cardiovascular effects. J Biol Chem. 2014;289:4798–812.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brinkman DL, Jia X, Potriquet J, et al. Transcriptome and venom proteome of the box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri. BMC Genomics. 2015;16:407.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Burnett JW, Calton GJ. Response of the box-jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) cardiotoxin to intravenous administration of verapamil. Med J Aust. 1983;2:192–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burnett JW, Othman IB, Endean R, Fenner PJ, Callanan VI, Williamson JA. Verapamil potentiation of Chironex (Box jellyfish) antivenom. Toxicon. 1990;28:242–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calton GJ, Burnett JW. Partial purification of Chironex fleckeri (sea wasp) venom by immunochromatography with antivenom. Toxicon. 1986;24:416–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carrette TJ, Cullen P, Little M, Peirera PL, Seymour JE. Temperature effects on box jellyfish venom: a possible treatment for envenomed patients? Med J Aust. 2002;177:654–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaousis S, Smout M, Wilson D, Loukas A, Mulvenna J, Seymour J. Rapid short term and gradual permanent cardiotoxic effects of vertebrate toxins from Chironex fleckeri (Australian box jellyfish) venom. Toxicon. 2014;80:17–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cleland JB, Southcott RV. Injuries to man from marine invertebrates in the Australian Region. Canberra: Nat Health Med Res Council; 1965. Special Report: Series no.12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins SP, Comis A, Marshall M, Hartwick RF, Howden MEH. Monoclonal antibodies neutralizing the haemolytic activity of Box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) tentacle extracts. Comp Biochem Physiol. 1993;106B:67–70.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crone HD. Chemical modification of the haemolytic activity of extracts from the box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri (Cnidaria). Toxicon. 1976a;14:97–107.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crone HD. On inactivation by gangliosides of the haemolytic protein toxin from the sea wasp (Chironex fleckeri). Toxicon. 1976b;14:494–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crone HD, Keen TEB. Chromatographic properties of the haemolysin from the cnidarian Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon. 1969;7:78–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crone HD, Keen TEB. Further studies on the biochemistry of the toxins from the sea wasp Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon. 1971;9:145–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Currie BJ, Wood YK. Identification of Chironex fleckeri envenomation by nematocyst recovery from skin. Med J Aust. 1995;162:478–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Currie BJ, McKinnon M, Whelan B. Alderslade P, The Gove chirodropid: a box jellyfish appearing in the “safe season”. Med J Aust. 2002:177–649.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards L, Hessinger DA. Portuguese Man-of-war (Physalia physalis) venom induces calcium influx into cells by permeabilizing plasma membranes. Toxicon. 2000;38:1015–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards L, Luo E, Hall R, Gonzalez RR Jr, Hessinger DA. The effect of Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia physalis) venom on calcium, sodium and potassium fluxes of cultured embryonic chick heart cells. Toxicon. 2000;38:323–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Endean R. Separation of two myotoxins from nematocysts of the box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri). Toxicon. 1987;25:483–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Endean R, Henderson L. Further studies of toxic material from nematocysts of the cubomedusan Chironex fleckeri Southcott. Toxicon. 1969;7:303–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Endean R, Henderson L. Some aspects of the biological activity of crude nematocyst toxin from Chironex fleckeri. In: Humm HJ, Lane CE, editors. Bioactive compounds from the sea. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Endean R, Sizemore DJ. The use of verapamil to counter the effects of myotoxins from nematocysts of the box-jellyfish Chironex fleckeri. In: Gopalakrishnakone P, Tan CK, editors. Progress in venom and toxin research. Oxford: Pergamon Press; 1987. p. 499.

    Google Scholar 

  • Endean R, Sizemore DJ. The effectiveness of antivenom in countering the actions of box-jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) nematocyst toxins in mice. Toxicon. 1988;26:425–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Endean R, Duchemin C, McColm D, Fraser EH. A study of the biological activity of toxic material derived from nematocysts of the cubomedusan Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon. 1969;6:179–204.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Endean R, Monks SA, Cameron AM. Toxins from the box-jellyfish Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon. 1993;31:397–410.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenner PJ, Harrison SL. Irukandji and Chironex fleckeri jellyfish envenomation in tropical Australia. Wilderness Environ Med. 2000;11:233–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenner PJ, Rodgers D, Williamson J. Box jellyfish antivenom and “Irukandji” stings. Med J Aust. 1986;144:665–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenner PJ, Williamson JA, Blenkin JA. Successful use of Chironex antivenom by members of the Queensland ambulance transport brigade. Med J Aust. 1989;151:708–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman SE. Action of Chironex fleckeri toxins on cardiac transmembrane potentials. Toxicon. 1974;12:395–404.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman SE, Turner RJ. A pharmacological study of the toxin of a Cnidarian Chironex fleckeri Southcott. Br J Pharmacol. 1969;35:510–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman SE, Turner RJ. Cardiovascular effects of toxins isolated from the cnidarian Chironex fleckeri Southcott. Br J Pharmacol. 1971;41:154–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman SE, Turner RJ. Cardiovascular effects of cnidarian toxins: a comparison of toxins extracted from Chiropsalmus quadrigatus and Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon. 1972;10:31–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gershwin LA. Comments on Chiropsalmus (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Chirodropida) : a preliminary revision of the Chiropsalmidae, with descriptions of two genera and two new species. Zootaxa. 2006;1231:1–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartwick R, Callanan V, Williamson J. Disarming the box jellyfish. Nematocyst inhibition in Chironex fleckeri. Med J Aust. 1980;1:15–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson D, Easton RG. Stingose, a new and effective treatment for bites and stings. Med J Aust. 1980;2:146–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes RJA, Angus JA, Winkel KD, Wright CE. A pharmacological investigation of the venom extract of the Australian box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri, in cardiac and vascular tissues. Toxicol Lett. 2012;209:11–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. International consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2015;132(16 suppl 1):S84–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isbister GK. Antivenom efficacy or effectiveness: the Australian experience. Toxicology. 2010;268:148–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jouiaei M, Yanagihara AA, Madio B, et al. Ancient venom systems: a review on cnidaria toxins. Toxins. 2015;7:2251–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kang C, Jin YB, Kwak J, et al. Protective effect of tetracycline against dermal toxicity induced by jellyfish venom. PLoS One. 2013;8(3):e57658.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Keen TEB. Recent investigations on sea-wasp stingings in Australia. Med J Aust. 1970;1:266–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keen TEB. Comparison of tentacle extracts from Chiropsalmus quadrigatus and Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon. 1971;9:249–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keen TEB, Crone HD. The hemolytic properties of extracts of tentacles from the cnidarian Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon. 1969a;7:55–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keen TEB, Crone HD. Dematonecrotic properties of extracts from the tentacles of the cnidarian Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon. 1969b;7:173–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kingston CW, Southcott RV. Skin histopathology in fatal jellyfish stinging. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1960;54:373–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li L, McGee RG, Isbister G, Webster AC. Interventions for the symptoms and signs resulting from jellyfish stings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;12:CD009688.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loten C, Stokes B, Worsley D, Seymour JE, Jiang S, Isbister GK. A randomised controlled trial of hot water (45°C) immersion versus ice packs for pain relief in bluebottle stings. Med J Aust. 2006;184:329–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lubbock R, Amos WB. Removal of bound calcium from nematocysts causes discharge. Nature (London). 1981;290:500–1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mustafa MR, White E, Hongo K, Othman I, Orchard CH. The mechanism underlying the cardiotoxic effect of the toxin from the jellyfish Chironex fleckeri. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1995;133:196–206.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naguib AMF, Bansal J, Calton GJ, Burnett JW. Purification of Chironex fleckeri venom components using Chironex immunoaffinity chromatography. Toxicon. 1988;26:387–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nomura JT, Sato RL, Ahern RM, Snow JL, Kuwaye TT, Yamamoto LG. A randomized paired comparison trial of cutaneous treatments for acute jellyfish (Carybdea alata) stings. Am J Emerg Med. 2002;20:624–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly GM, Isbister GK, Lawrie PM, Treston GT, Currie BJ. Prospective study of jellyfish stings from tropical Australia, including the major box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri. Med J Aust. 2001;175:652–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olson CE, Pockl EE, Calton GJ, Burnett JW. Immunochromatographic purification of a nematocyst toxin from the cnidarian Chironex fleckeri (sea wasp). Toxicon. 1984;22:733–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Othman I, Burnett JW. Techniques applicable for purifying Chironex fleckeri (Box-jellyfish) venom. Toxicon. 1990;28:821–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Özbek S, Balasubramanian PG, Holstein TW. Cnidocyst structure and the biomechanics of discharge. Toxicon. 2009;54:1038–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira P, Seymour JE. In vitro effects on human heart and skeletal cells of the venom from two cubozoans, Chironex fleckeri and Carukia barnesi. Toxicon. 2013;76:310–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira PL, Carrette T, Cullen P, Mulcahy RF, Little M, Seymour J. Pressure immobilisation bandages in first-aid treatment of jellyfish envenomation: current recommendations reconsidered. Med J Aust. 2000;173:650–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramasamy S, Isbister GK, Seymour JE, Hodgson WC. The in vitro effects of two chirodropid (Chironex fleckeri and Chiropsalmus sp.) venoms: efficacy of box jellyfish antivenom. Toxicon. 2003;41:703–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramasamy S, Isbister GK, Seymour JE, Hodgson WC. The in vivo cardiovascular effects of box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri venom in rats: efficacy of pre-treatment with antivenom, verapamil and magnesium sulphate. Toxicon. 2004;43:685–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramasamy S, Isbister GK, Seymour JE, Hodgson WC. The in vivo cardiovascular effects of an Australian box jellyfish (Chiropsalmus sp.) venom in rats. Toxicon. 2005;45:321–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rifkin J, Endean R. The structure and function of the nematocysts of Chironex fleckeri Southcott, 1956. Cell Tissue Res. 1983;233:563–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seymour J, Carrette T, Cullen P, Little M, Mulcahy RF, Pereira PL. The use of pressure immobilization bandages in the first aid management of cubozoan envenomings. Toxicon. 2002;40:1503–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Southcott RV, Kingston CW. Lethal jellyfish stings: a study in “sea wasps”. Med J Aust. 1959;1:443–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland SK, Tibballs J. Australian animal toxins. Melbourne: Oxford University Press; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland SK, Coulter AR, Harris RD. Rationalisation of first-aid measures for elapid snakebite. Lancet. 1979;1:183–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tardent P. The cnidarian cnidocyte, a high-tech cellular weaponry. BioEssays. 1995;17:351–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas CS, Scott SA, Galanis DJ, Goto RS. Box jellyfish (Carybdea alata) in Waikiki. The analgesic effect of sting-aid, Adolph’s meat tenderizer and fresh water on their stings: a double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Hawaii Med J. 2001a;60:205–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas CS, Scott SA, Galanis DJ, Goto RS. Box jellyfish (Carybdea alata) in Waikiki: their influx cycle plus the analgesic effect of hot and cold packs on their stings to swimmers at the beach: a randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial. Hawaii Med J. 2001b;60:100–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tibballs J, Williams D, Sutherland SK. The effects of antivenom and verapamil on the haemodynamic actions of Chironex fleckeri (Box jellyfish) venom. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1998;26:40–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tibballs J, Yanagihara AA, Turner HC, Winkel K. Immunological and toxinological responses to jellyfish stings. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets. 2011;10:438–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Turner RJ, Freeman SE. Effects of Chironex fleckeri toxin on the isolated perfused guinea pig heart. Toxicon. 1969;7:277–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang T, Wen X-J, Mei XB, et al. Lipid peroxidation is another potential mechanism besides pore-formation underlying hemolysis of tentacle extract from the jellyfish Cyanea capillata. Mar Drugs. 2013;11:67–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Welfare P, Little M, Pereira P, Seymour J. An in-vitro examination of the effect of vinegar on discharged nematocysts of Chironex fleckeri. Diving & Hyperb Med. 2014;44:30–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilcox CL, Yanagihara AA. Heated debates: Hot-water immersion or ice packs as first aid for Cnidarian envenomations. Toxins. 2016;8(4):97. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8040097.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson JA, Callanan VI, Unwin ML, Hartwick RF. Box-jellyfish venom and humans. Med J Aust. 1984;31:4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson JA, Fenner PJ, Burnett JW, Rifkin JF. Venomous & poisonous marine animals: a medical and biological handbook. Sydney: Surf Life Saving Australia and University of New South Wales Press; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiltshire CJ, Sutherland SK, Fenner PJ, Young AR. Optimization and preliminary characterization of venom isolated from three medically important jellyfish: box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri), Irukandji (Carukia barnesi) and blubber (Catostylus mosaicus). Wilderness Environ Med. 2000;11:241–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winkel KD, Hawdon GM, Fenner PJ, Gershwin LA, Collins AG, Tibballs J. Jellyfish antivenoms: past, present, and future. J Toxicol Toxin Rev. 2003;22:115–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winkel KD, Tibballs J, Molenaar P, et al. The cardiovascular actions of the venom from the Irukandji (Carukia barnesi) jellyfish: effects in human, rat and guinea pig tissues in vitro, and in pigs in vivo. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2005;32:777–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winter KL, Fernando R, Ramasamy S, Seymour JE, Isbister GK, Hodgson WC. The in vitro vascular effects of two chirodropid (Chironex fleckeri and Chiropsella bronzie) venoms. Toxicol Lett. 2007;168:13–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winter KL, Isbister GK, Jacoby T, Seymour JE, Hodgson WC. An in vivo comparison of the efficacy of CSL box jellyfish antivenom with antibodies raised against nematocyst-derived Chironex fleckeri venom. Toxicol Lett. 2009;187:94–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yanagihara AA, Shohet RV. Cubozoan venom-induced cardiovascular collapse is caused by hyperkalaemia and prevented by zinc gluconate in mice. PLoS One. 2012;7:e51368.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yanagihara AA, Wilcox C, King R, Hurwitz K, Castelfranco AM. Experimental assays to assess the efficacy of vinegar and other topical first-aid approaches on Cubozoan (Alatina alata) tentacle firing and venom toxicity. Toxins. 2016;8(1):19. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8010019.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshimoto CM, Yanagihara AA. Cnidarian (coelenterate) envenomations in Hawaii improve following heat application. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2002;96:300–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Intensive Care Unit, The Royal Children’s Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    James Tibballs

Authors
  1. James Tibballs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to James Tibballs .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Hawaii Cancer Center, and Department of Pathology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA

    Carl-Wilhelm Vogel

  2. Department of Emergency Medicine New Mexico School of Medicine, New Mexico Poison Center, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA

    Steven A. Seifert

  3. Laboratory of Immunochemistry, Division of Development and Innovation Butantan Institute, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

    Denise V. Tambourgi

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Tibballs, J. (2018). Australian Chirodropid Cubozoan Jellyfish Envenomation. In: Vogel, CW., Seifert, S., Tambourgi, D. (eds) Clinical Toxinology in Australia, Europe, and Americas. Toxinology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7438-3_78

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation