Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Biowarfare Agent Ricin

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Biological Toxins and Bioterrorism

Part of the book series: Toxinology ((TOXI))

Abstract

Ricin toxin (RT) is an abundant glycoprotein component of Castor beans (CB) that is highly toxic to mammalian cells. RT is water soluble and does not partition into the oil extract, and there are different isoforms with varied toxicities and antigenicities. RT belongs to the B group of biological warfare agents (BWA). It is made up of two functionally different parts, an A polypeptide chain (RTA: 32 kDa) and a B polypeptide chain (RTB: 34KDa). RTB attaches onto the cell surface, while RTA enters the cell, attaching to ribosomes and inhibiting protein synthesis. A single RTA biomolecule is able to inactivate 1,500–2,000 ribosomes per minute, ultimately leading to cell death. As a BWA, RT is most likely to be deployed as an aerosol; however, it could be administered by other means: ingestion, or possibly even by injection, for assassination. The effectiveness of modified RT for immunochemotherapy has been evaluated. Toxicity and severity of clinical manifestations vary between different routes of administration. Inhalation is the most potent route of entry, and oral ingestion is less toxic and may be nonlethal. RT is detected in tissue sections, body fluids, and nasal swabs of poisoned animals by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Treatment of intoxicated patients is very difficult, because RT acts rapidly and irreversibly. The main parts of treatments are decontamination and supportive therapy. Some methods of active and passive immunization have also been investigated.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Anonymus. Investigation of a ricin-containing envelope at a postal facility – South Carolina. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003; 52(46): 1129–1131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Audi J, Belson M, Patel M, Schier J, Osterloh J. Ricin poisoning: a comprehensive review. JAMA. 2005;294(18):2342–51. doi:10.1001/jama.294.18.2342.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balali Mood M, Moshiri M, Etemad L. Bio warfare and terrorism: toxins and other mid-spectrum agents. In: Wexler P, Greim H, Moser V, Wiegand TJ, Lafarga JVT, Peyster A, et al. editors. Encyclopedia of toxicology 3rd Edition. Elsevier; Amsterdam 2014 pp 503–508.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balali-Mood M, Moshiri M, Etemad L. Medical aspects of bio-terrorism. Toxicon. 2013;69:131–42. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.01.005.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barbier J, Bouclier C, Johannes L, Gillet D. Inhibitors of the cellular trafficking of Ricin. Toxins (Basel). 2012;4(1):15–27. doi:10.3390/toxins4010015.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bradberry S. Ricin and abrin. Medicine. 2012;40(2):80–1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradberry SM, Dickers KJ, Rice P, Griffiths GD, Vale JA. Ricin poisoning. Toxicol Rev. 2003;22(1):65–70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brandon DL, Korn AM, Yang LL. Detection of ricin contamination in liquid egg by electrochemiluminescence immunosorbent assay. J Food Sci. 2012;77(4):T83–8. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02627.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carra JH, Wannemacher RW, Tammariello RF, Lindsey CY, Dinterman RE, Schokman RD, et al. Improved formulation of a recombinant ricin A-chain vaccine increases its stability and effective antigenicity. Vaccine. 2007;25(21):4149–58. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.03.011.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Challoner KR, McCarron MM. Castor bean intoxication. Ann Emerg Med. 1990;19(10):1177–83.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chow SK, Casadevall A. Monoclonal antibodies and toxins–a perspective on function and isotype. Toxins (Basel). 2012;4(6):430–54. doi:10.3390/toxins4060430.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Christiansen VJ, Hsu CH, Dormer KJ, Robinson CP. The cardiovascular effects of ricin in rabbits. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1994;74(3):148–52.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coopman V, De Leeuw M, Cordonnier J, Jacobs W. Suicidal death after injection of a castor bean extract (Ricinus communis L.). Forensic Sci Int. 2009;189(1–3):e13–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crompton R, Gall D. Georgi Markov–death in a pellet. Med Leg J. 1980;48(2):51–62.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doan LG. Ricin: mechanism of toxicity, clinical manifestations, and vaccine development. A review. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2004;42(2):201–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferraz AC, Angelucci ME, Da Costa ML, Batista IR, De Oliveira BH, Da Cunha C. Pharmacological evaluation of ricinine, a central nervous system stimulant isolated from Ricinus communis. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1999;63(3):367–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths GD, Lindsay CD, Allenby AC, Bailey SC, Scawin JW, Rice P, et al. Protection against inhalation toxicity of ricin and abrin by immunisation. Hum Exp Toxicol. 1995;14(2):155–64.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths GD, Phillips GJ, Holley J. Inhalation toxicology of ricin preparations: animal models, prophylactic and therapeutic approaches to protection. Inhal Toxicol. 2007;19(10):873–87. doi:10.1080/08958370701432124.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hassoun EA, Stohs SJ. Potential chemoprotectant activity of 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine (AZT) and 2′,3′-dideoxycytidine (DDC) against ricin toxicity in Chinese hamster ovary and macrophage J774A.1 cell cultures. J Appl Toxicol. 1996;16(1):43–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • He X, McMahon S, Henderson 2nd TD, Griffey SM, Cheng LW. Ricin toxicokinetics and its sensitive detection in mouse sera or feces using immuno-PCR. PLoS One. 2010a;5(9):e12858. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012858.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • He X, McMahon S, McKeon TA, Brandon DL. Development of a novel immuno-PCR assay for detection of ricin in ground beef, liquid chicken egg, and milk. J Food Prot. 2010b;73(4):695–700.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Legler PM, Brey RN, Smallshaw JE, Vitetta ES, Millard CB. Structure of RiVax: a recombinant ricin vaccine. Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr. 2011;67(Pt 9):826–30. doi:10.1107/S0907444911026771.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lord JM, Roberts LM, Robertus JD. Ricin: structure, mode of action, and some current applications. FASEB J. 1994;8(2):201–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lord MJ, Jolliffe NA, Marsden CJ, Pateman CS, Smith DC, Spooner RA, et al. Ricin. Mechanisms of cytotoxicity. Toxicol Rev. 2003;22(1):53–64.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olsnes S. The history of ricin, abrin and related toxins. Toxicon. 2004;44(4):361–70. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.05.003.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olsnes S, Kozlov JV. Ricin. Toxicon. 2001;39(11):1723–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papaloucas M, Papaloucas C, Stergioulas A. Ricin and the assassination of Georgi Markov. Pak J Biol Sci. 2008;11(19):2370–1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pincus SH, Smallshaw JE, Song K, Berry J, Vitetta ES. Passive and active vaccination strategies to prevent ricin poisoning. Toxins (Basel). 2011;3(9):1163–84. doi:10.3390/toxins3091163.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poli MA, Roy H, Huebner KD, Franz DR, Jaax NK. Chapter 15, Ricin. In: Lenhart MK, editor. Medical aspects of biological warfare. Washington, DC: Borden Institute, Office of the Surgeon General, AMEDD Center & School, US Army; 2008. p. 323–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rana M, Dhamija H, Prashar B, Sharma S. Ricinus communis L. Int J PharmTech Res. 2012;4(4):1706–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saeidnia S, Abdollahi M. How dangerous could be the receiving of a Ricin-Contaminated letter? Iran J Biotechnol. 2013;11(3):141–3. doi:10.5812/ijb.13755.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scarpa A, Guerci A. Various uses of the castor oil plant (Ricinus communis L.). J Ethnopharmacol. 1982;5(2):117–37.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sehgal P, Khan M, Kumar O, Vijayaraghavan R. Purification, characterization and toxicity profile of ricin isoforms from castor beans. Food Chem Toxicol. 2010;48(11):3171–6. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2010.08.015.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shah SA, Halloran PM, Ferris CA, et al. Anti-B4-blocked ricin immunotoxin shows therapeutic efficacy in four different SCID mouse tumor models. Cancer Res. 1993;53(6):1360–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smallshaw JE, Richardson JA, Vitetta ES. RiVax, a recombinant ricin subunit vaccine, protects mice against ricin delivered by gavage or aerosol. Vaccine. 2007;25(42):7459–69.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stechmann B, Bai SK, Gobbo E, Lopez R, Merer G, Pinchard S, et al. Inhibition of retrograde transport protects mice from lethal ricin challenge. Cell. 2010;141(2):231–42. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.043.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart CC. Weapons of mass casualties and terrorism response handbook. Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitetta ES, Smallshaw JE, Coleman E, Jafri H, Foster C, Munford R, et al. A pilot clinical trial of a recombinant ricin vaccine in normal humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103(7):2268–73. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510893103.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wilhelmsen CL, Pitt ML. Lesions of acute inhaled lethal ricin intoxication in rhesus monkeys. Vet Pathol. 1996;33(3):296–302.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Worbs S, Kohler K, Pauly D, Avondet MA, Schaer M, Dorner MB, et al. Ricinus communis intoxications in human and veterinary medicine-a summary of real cases. Toxins (Basel). 2011;3(10):1332–72. doi:10.3390/toxins3101332.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshida M, Rybak RJ, Choi Y, et al. Development of a severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mouse model consisting of highly disseminated human B-cell leukemia/lymphoma, cure of the tumors by systemic administration of immunotoxin, and development/application of a clonotype-specific polymerase chain reaction-based assay. Cancer Res. 1997;57(4):678–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zilinskas RA. Iraq’s biological weapons. The past as future? JAMA. 1997;278(5):418–24.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Pharmacodynamy and Toxicology Department, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

    Mohammad Moshiri

  2. Pharmaceutical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

    Leila Etemad

  3. Medical Toxicology Research Centre, Head of Department of Clinical Toxicology, Medical School, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

    Mahdi Balali-Mood

Authors
  1. Mohammad Moshiri
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Leila Etemad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mahdi Balali-Mood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mahdi Balali-Mood .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Venom and Toxin Research Programme, Department of Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

    P. Gopalakrishnakone

  2. Medical Toxicology Research Centre Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

    Mahdi Balali-Mood

  3. Data and Technology Innovation, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, QLD, Australia

    Lyndon Llewellyn

  4. Botulinum Research Center, Institute of Advanced Sciences, Dartmouth, MA, USA

    Bal Ram Singh

  5. Prime Bio, Inc., Dartmouth, MA, USA

    Bal Ram Singh

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Moshiri, M., Etemad, L., Balali-Mood, M. (2015). The Biowarfare Agent Ricin. In: Gopalakrishnakone, P., Balali-Mood, M., Llewellyn, L., Singh, B.R. (eds) Biological Toxins and Bioterrorism. Toxinology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5869-8_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation