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Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems pp 325–373Cite as

Radio and Optical Interferometry: Basic Observing Techniques and Data Analysis

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Abstract

Astronomers usually need the highest angular resolution possible when observing celestial objects, but the blurring effect of diffraction imposes a fundamental limit on the image quality from any single telescope. Interferometry allows light collected at widely separated telescopes to be combined in order to synthesize an aperture much larger than an individual telescope, thereby improving angular resolution by orders of magnitude. Because diffraction has the largest effect for long wavelengths, radio and millimeter wave astronomers depend on interferometry to achieve image quality on par with conventional large-aperture visible and infrared telescopes. Interferometers at visible and infrared wavelengths extend angular resolution below the milliarcsecond level to open up unique research areas in imaging stellar surfaces and circumstellar environments.

In this chapter, the basic principles of interferometry are reviewed with an emphasis on the common features for radio and optical observing. While many techniques are common to interferometers of all wavelengths, crucial differences are identified that will help new practitioners to avoid unnecessary confusion and common pitfalls. The concepts essential for writing observing proposals and for planning observations are described, depending on the science wavelength, the angular resolution, and the field of view required. Atmospheric and ionospheric turbulence degrades the longest-baseline observations by significantly reducing the stability of interference fringes. Such instabilities represent a persistent challenge, and the basic techniques of phase referencing and phase closure have been developed to deal with them. Synthesis imaging with large observing datasets has become a routine and straightforward process at radio observatories, but remains challenging for optical facilities. In this context, the commonly used image reconstruction algorithms CLEAN and MEM are presented. Lastly, a concise overview of current facilities is included as an appendix.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    It should be emphasized, however, that this distinction is somewhat artificial; the first meter-wave radio interferometers ≈ 65 years ago were simple Michelson adding interferometers employing direct detection without coherent high-frequency signal amplification. At the other extreme, superheterodyne systems are currently routinely used at wavelengths as short as 10 μm, such as the UC Berkeley ISI facility.

  2. 2.

    There are several different coordinate systems in use to describe the geometry of ground-based interferometers used in observing the celestial sphere (see, e.g., Thompson et al. 2001, Chapter 4 and Appendix 4.1).

  3. 3.

    Very recently, several radio observatories have begun to equip their antennas (and at least one entire synthesis telescope) with arrays of such feeds.

  4. 4.

    This is not all advantageous; if the data is intended to be used in an imaging synthesis, the absence of the total power component means that the value of the map made from the data will integrate to zero. In other words, without further processing, the image will be sitting on a slightly negative “floor.” If more interferometer spacings around zero are also missing, the floor becomes a “bowl.” All this is colloquially called “the short-spacing problem,” and it adversely affects the photometric accuracy of the image. A significant part of the computer processing “bag of tricks” used to “restore” such images is intended to address this problem, although the only proper way to do that is to obtain the missing data and incorporate it into the synthesis.

  5. 5.

    At millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths, correlators still do not attain the maximum useful bandwidths for continuum observations.

  6. 6.

    Recall that an integration of specific intensity over solid angle results in a flux density, often expressed in Jansky.

  7. 7.

    Although amplifiers are currently used in the long-distance transmission of near-IR (digital) communication signals in optical fibers, the signal levels are relatively large and low noise is not an important requirement.

  8. 8.

    Real interferometers will have a realistic limit about 1–2 orders of magnitude below the theoretical limit due to throughput losses and nonideal effects such as loss of system visibility.

  9. 9.

    At the shortest sub-mm wavelengths, phase referencing is quite difficult due to strong water vapor turbulence, but can be partially corrected using “water-vapor monitoring” techniques (e.g., Wiedner et al. 2001).

  10. 10.

    Fortunately, targets of optical interferometers are generally spatially compact and so sparser (u,v) coverage can often be acceptable.

  11. 11.

    In general, also the polarization states and wavefront coherence can also be modified.

  12. 12.

    Phase referencing is possible using “Dual Star Feeds” which allows truly simultaneous observing of a pair of objects in the same narrow isoplanatic patch on the sky. This capability has been demonstrated on PTI, Keck, and VLTI.

  13. 13.

    Historically, model fitting was the way data was handled in order to discern source structure in the early days of radio interferometry. A classic example is the model of Cygnus A, which Jennison and Das Gupta fitted to long-baseline intensity-interferometry data at 2.4-m wavelength in 1953 (Jennison and Das Gupta 1953). Sullivan (2009, p. 353 et. seq) gives more details of this fascinating story.

  14. 14.

    In general, one can consider a full “Spatial Transfer Function” which can have weights between 0 and 1. Here, consider just a simple binary mask in the (u,v) plane for simplicity.

  15. 15.

    It’s interesting to note that at some large-enough diameter, ground-based telescopes are likely to become similar in cost to those in space, especially if one considers life-cycle costs.

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Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the following colleagues for their comments and contributions: W.M. Goss, R.D. Ekers, T.L. Wilson, S. Kraus, M. Zhao, T. ten Brummelaar, A. King, and P. Teuben.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Astronomy Department, Experimental Astrophysics, University of Michigan, 941 Dennison Bldg, 500 Church Street, 48109-1090, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Prof. John D. Monnier

  2. Science Mission Office, Space Telescope Science Institute, 3700 San Martin Drive, 21218, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Prof. Ronald J. Allen

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  1. Department of Physics & Space Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, University Boulevard, Melbourne, FL, USA

    Terry D. Oswalt

  2. Labrador Lane, Cockeysville, MD, USA

    Howard E. Bond

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Monnier, J.D., Allen, R.J. (2013). Radio and Optical Interferometry: Basic Observing Techniques and Data Analysis. In: Oswalt, T.D., Bond, H.E. (eds) Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5618-2_7

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