Abstract
Improved outcomes in cardiac transplant outcomes can be largely attributed to advances in immunosuppressive strategies. When formulating modern immunosuppressive regimens, one must recognize the changing landscape of outcomes including decreased mortality risk related to rejection and increased risk related to infection, malignancy, renal insufficiency, cardiac allograft vasculopathy, and metabolic disease. These conditions are impacted significantly by specific agents, and a patient-tailored, dynamic immunosuppressive strategy may prove advantageous.
References
Acuna SA, Fernandes KA, Daly C et al (2016) Cancer mortality among recipients of solid-organ transplantation in Ontario, Canada. JAMA Oncol 2(4):463–469. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoncol.2015.5137
Albiges L, Chamming’s F, Duclos B et al (2012) Incidence and management of mTOR inhibitor-associated pneumonitis in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma. Ann Oncol Off J Eur Soc Med Oncol 23(8):1943–1953. https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mds115
Aleksic I, Baryalei M, Busch T et al (2000) Improvement of impaired renal function in heart transplant recipients treated with mycophenolate mofetil and low-dose cyclosporine. Transplantation 69(8):1586–1590
Allison AC, Eugui EM (2000) Mycophenolate mofetil and its mechanisms of action. Immunopharmacology 47(2–3):85–118
Andreassen AK, Andersson B, Gustafsson F et al (2014) Everolimus initiation and early calcineurin inhibitor withdrawal in heart transplant recipients: a randomized trial. Am J Transplant 14(8):1828–1838. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.12809
Andreassen AK, Andersson B, Gustafsson F et al (2016) Everolimus initiation with early Calcineurin inhibitor withdrawal in De novo heart transplant recipients: three-year results from the randomized SCHEDULE study. Am J Transplant 16(4):1238–1247. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.13588
Angermann CE, Stork S, Costard-Jackle A et al (2004) Reduction of cyclosporine after introduction of mycophenolate mofetil improves chronic renal dysfunction in heart transplant recipients – the IMPROVED multi-centre study. Eur Heart J 25(18):1626–1634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehj.2004.06.032
Anglicheau D, Pallet N, Rabant M et al (2006) Role of P-glycoprotein in cyclosporine cytotoxicity in the cyclosporine-sirolimus interaction. Kidney Int 70(6):1019–1025. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ki.5001649
Aono J, Ruiz-Rodriguez E, Qing H et al (2016) Telomerase inhibition by everolimus suppresses smooth muscle cell proliferation and neointima formation through epigenetic gene silencing. JACC Basic Transl Sci 1(1–2):49–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacbts.2016.01.002
Arora S, Ueland T, Wennerblom B et al (2011) Effect of everolimus introduction on cardiac allograft vasculopathy – results of a randomized, multicenter trial. Transplantation 92(2):235–243. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e31822057f1
Arora S, Gude E, Sigurdardottir V et al (2012) Improvement in renal function after everolimus introduction and calcineurin inhibitor reduction in maintenance thoracic transplant recipients: the significance of baseline glomerular filtration rate. J Heart Lung Transplant 31(3):259–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2011.12.010
Bacal F, Silva CP, Bocchi EA et al (2005) Mychophenolate mofetil increased chagas disease reactivation in heart transplanted patients: comparison between two different protocols. Am J Transplant 5(8):2017–2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.00975.x
Back DJ, Tjia JF (1991) Comparative effects of the antimycotic drugs ketoconazole, fluconazole, itraconazole and terbinafine on the metabolism of cyclosporin by human liver microsomes. Br J Clin Pharmacol 32(5):624–626
Bai S, Stepkowski SM, Kahan BD, Brunner LJ (2004) Metabolic interaction between cyclosporine and sirolimus. Transplantation 77(10):1507–1512
Ballantyne CM, Corsini A, Davidson MH et al (2003) Risk for myopathy with statin therapy in high-risk patients. Arch Intern Med 163(5):553–564
Bar Oz B, Hackman R, Einarson T, Koren G (2001) Pregnancy outcome after cyclosporine therapy during pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Transplantation 71(8):1051–1055
Baran DA, Zucker MJ, Arroyo LH et al (2007) Randomized trial of tacrolimus monotherapy: tacrolimus in combination, tacrolimus alone compared (the TICTAC trial). J Heart Lung Transplant 26(10):992–997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2007.07.022
Baran DA, Zucker MJ, Arroyo LH et al (2011) A prospective, randomized trial of single-drug versus dual-drug immunosuppression in heart transplantation: the tacrolimus in combination, tacrolimus alone compared (TICTAC) trial. Circ Heart Fail 4(2):129–137. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.110.958520
Barge-Caballero G, Barge-Caballero E, Marzoa-Rivas R et al (2015) Clinical evaluation of rosuvastatin in heart transplant patients with hypercholesterolemia and therapeutic failure of other statin regimens: short-term and long-term efficacy and safety results. Transpl Int 28(9):1034–1041. https://doi.org/10.1111/tri.12585
Barone GW, Gurley BJ, Abul-Ezz SR, Gokden N (2003) Sirolimus-induced thrombotic microangiopathy in a renal transplant recipient. Am J Kidney Dis 42(1):202–206
Barros EJ, Boim MA, Ajzen H, Ramos OL, Schor N (1987) Glomerular hemodynamics and hormonal participation on cyclosporine nephrotoxicity. Kidney Int 32(1):19–25. https://doi.org/10.1038/Ki.1987.166
Baryalei M, Zenker D, Pieske B, Tondo K, Dalichau H, Aleksic I (2003) Renal function and safety of heart transplant recipients switched to mycophenolate mofetil and low-dose cyclosporine. Transplant Proc 35(4):1539–1542
Bechstein WO (2000) Neurotoxicity of calcineurin inhibitors: impact and clinical management. Transpl Int 13(5):313–326
Bekersky I, Dressler D, Mekki QA (2001) Effect of low- and high-fat meals on tacrolimus absorption following 5 mg single oral doses to healthy human subjects. J Clin Pharmacol 41(2):176–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/00912700122009999
Bergmann TK, Barraclough KA, Lee KJ, Staatz CE (2012) Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of prednisolone and prednisone in solid organ transplantation. Clin Pharmacokinet 51(11):711–741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40262-012-0007-8
Boissonnat P, Salen P, Guidollet J et al (1994) The long-term effects of the lipid-lowering agent fenofibrate in hyperlipidemic heart transplant recipients. Transplantation 58(2):245–247
Braun M, Young J, Reiner CS et al (2012) Low-dose oral sirolimus and the risk of menstrual-cycle disturbances and ovarian cysts: analysis of the randomized controlled SUISSE ADPKD trial. PLoS One 7(10):e45868. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0045868
Brozena SC, Johnson MR, Ventura H et al (1996) Effectiveness and safety of diltiazem or lisinopril in treatment of hypertension after heart transplantation. Results of a prospective, randomized multicenter trail. J Am Coll Cardiol 27(7):1707–1712
Caforio ALP, Tona F, Fortina AB et al (2004) Immune and nonimmune predictors of cardiac allograft vasculopathy onset and severity: multivariate risk factor analysis and role of immunosuppression. Am J Transplant 4(6):962–970. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2004.00434.x
Campistol JM, Eris J, Oberbauer R et al (2006) Sirolimus therapy after early cyclosporine withdrawal reduces the risk for cancer in adult renal transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol 17(2):581–589. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2005090993
Cantarovich M, Barkun J, Giannetti N, Cecere R, Besner J-G, Tchervenkov J (2004) History of C2 monitoring in heart and liver transplant patients treated with cyclosporine microemulsion. Transplant Proc 36 (2 Suppl):442S–447S. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2004.01.004
Chan C, Maurer J, Cardella C, Cattran D, Pei Y (1997) A randomized controlled trial of verapamil on cyclosporine nephrotoxicity in heart and lung transplant recipients. Transplantation 63(10):1435–1440
Chang C-T, Hung C-C, Tian Y-C, Yang C-W, Wu M-S (2007) Ciclosporin reduces paracellin-1 expression and magnesium transport in thick ascending limb cells. Nephrol Dial Transplant 22(4):1033–1040. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfl817
Chhajed PN, Dickenmann M, Bubendorf L, Mayr M, Steiger J, Tamm M (2006) Patterns of pulmonary complications associated with sirolimus. Respiration 73(3):367–374. https://doi.org/10.1159/000087945
Chitwood KK, Abdul-Haqq AJ, Heim-Duthoy KL (1993) Cyclosporine-amiodarone interaction. Ann Pharmacother 27(5):569–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/106002809302700506
Cho YM, Park KS, Jung HS et al (2003) High incidence of tacrolimus-associated posttransplantation diabetes in the Korean renal allograft recipients according to American Diabetes Association criteria. Diabetes Care 26(4):1123–1128
Choquet S, Leblond V, Herbrecht R et al (2006) Efficacy and safety of rituximab in B-cell post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders: results of a prospective multicenter phase 2 study. Blood 107(8):3053–3057. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2005-01-0377
Chu S-H, Liu K-L, Chiang Y-J, Wang H-H, Lai P-C (2008) Sirolimus used during pregnancy in a living related renal transplant recipient: a case report. Transplant Proc 40(7):2446–2448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2008.06.015
Clipstone NA, Crabtree GR (1992) Identification of calcineurin as a key signalling enzyme in T-lymphocyte activation. Nature 357(6380):695–697. https://doi.org/10.1038/357695a0
Collin C, Boussaud V, Lefeuvre S et al (2010) Sublingual tacrolimus as an alternative to intravenous route in patients with thoracic transplant: a retrospective study. Transplant Proc 42(10):4331–4337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2010.09.126
Conn HO, Poynard T (1984) Adrenocorticosteroid therapy and peptic-ulcer disease. N Engl J Med 310(3):201–202. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198401193100316
Constantinescu S, Pai A, Coscia LA, Davison JM, Moritz MJ, Armenti VT (2014) Breast-feeding after transplantation. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 28(8):1163–1173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2014.09.001
Cooney GF, Jeevanandam V, Choudhury S, Feutren G, Mueller EA, Eisen HJ (1998) Comparative bioavailability of Neoral and Sandimmune in cardiac transplant recipients over 1 year. Transplant Proc 30(5):1892–1894
Cosansu K, Cakmak HA, Karadag B, Aivazov M, Seyahi N, Vural VA (2011) Impact of different immunosuppressive drugs on QT interval in renal transplant patients. Heart 97(Suppl 3):A186 LP–A18A186. http://heart.bmj.com/content/97/Suppl_3/A186.2.abstract
Costanzo MR, Naftel DC, Pritzker MR et al (1998) Heart transplant coronary artery disease detected by coronary angiography: a multiinstitutional study of preoperative donor and recipient risk factors. Cardiac Transplant Research Database. J Heart Lung Transplant 17(8):744–753
Costanzo MR, Dipchand A, Starling R et al (2010) The International Society of Heart and Lung Transplantation Guidelines for the care of heart transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant 29(8):914–956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2010.05.034
Crone CC, Gabriel GM (2004) Treatment of anxiety and depression in transplant patients: pharmacokinetic considerations. Clin Pharmacokinet 43(6):361–394. https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200443060-00002
Daneshvar D, Czer LSC, Phan A et al (2011) Heart transplantation in patients aged 70 years and older: a two-decade experience. Transplant Proc 43(10):3851–3856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2011.08.086
Dantal J, Morelon E, Rostaing L et al (2018) Sirolimus for secondary prevention of skin cancer in kidney transplant recipients: 5-year results. J Clin Oncol 36(25):2612–2620. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2017.76.6691
de Andrade JP, Marin Neto JA, de Paola AAV et al (2011) I Latin American guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of Chagas’ heart disease: executive summary. Arq Bras Cardiol 96(6):434–442
de Fijter JW (2017) Cancer and mTOR inhibitors in transplant recipients. Transplantation 101(1):45–55. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000001447
Dick TB, Raines AA, Stinson JB, Collingridge DS, Harmston GE (2011) Fludrocortisone is effective in the management of tacrolimus-induced hyperkalemia in liver transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 43(7):2664–2668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2011.07.006
Dierickx D, Tousseyn T, Morscio J, Fieuws S, Verhoef G (2013) Validation of prognostic scores in post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders. J Clin Oncol 31(27):3443–3444. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2013.50.3326
Doesch AO, Muller S, Konstandin M et al (2010) Malignancies after heart transplantation: incidence, risk factors, and effects of calcineurin inhibitor withdrawal. Transplant Proc 42(9):3694–3699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2010.07.107
Eisen HJ, Hobbs RE, Davis SF et al (2001) Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of cyclosporine microemulsion in heart transplant recipients: a randomized, multicenter, double-blind comparison with the oil-based formulation of cyclosporine – results at 24 months after transplantation. Transplantation 71(1):70–78
Eisen HJ, Kobashigawa J, Starling RC et al (2013) Everolimus versus mycophenolate mofetil in heart transplantation: a randomized, multicenter trial. Am J Transplant 13(5):1203–1216. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.12181
el-Agroudy AE, Sobh MA, Hamdy AF, Ghoneim MA (2004) A prospective, randomized study of coadministration of ketoconazole and cyclosporine a in kidney transplant recipients: ten-year follow-up. Transplantation 77(9):1371–1376
El-Dahshan KF, Bakr MA, Donia AF, Badr AE-S, Sobh MA-K (2006) Ketoconazole-tacrolimus coadministration in kidney transplant recipients: two-year results of a prospective randomized study. Am J Nephrol 26(3):293–298. https://doi.org/10.1159/000094133
Ensley RD, Bristow MR, Olsen SL et al (1993) The use of mycophenolate mofetil (RS-61443) in human heart transplant recipients. Transplantation 56(1):75–82
Ensor CR, Doligalski CT (2013) Proliferation signal inhibitor toxicities after thoracic transplantation. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 9(1):63–77. https://doi.org/10.1517/17425255.2012.726219
Escobar A, Ventura HO, Stapleton DD et al (1994) Cardiac allograft vasculopathy assessed by intravascular ultrasonography and nonimmunologic risk factors. Am J Cardiol 74(10):1042–1046
Evens AM, David KA, Helenowski I et al (2010) Multicenter analysis of 80 solid organ transplantation recipients with post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disease: outcomes and prognostic factors in the modern era. J Clin Oncol 28(6):1038–1046. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2009.25.4961
Filsoufi F, Rahmanian PB, Castillo JG, Pinney S, Broumand SR, Adams DH (2007) Incidence, treatment strategies and outcome of deep sternal wound infection after orthotopic heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 26(11):1084–1090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2007.07.036
Flechner SM, Kobashigawa J, Klintmalm G (2008) Calcineurin inhibitor-sparing regimens in solid organ transplantation: focus on improving renal function and nephrotoxicity. Clin Transpl 22(1):1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-0012.2007.00739.x
Formea CM, Myers-Huentelman H, Wu R et al (2004) Thiopurine S-methyltransferase genotype predicts azathioprine-induced myelotoxicity in kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 4(11):1810–1817. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2004.00575.x
Framarino dei Malatesta M, Corona LE, De Luca L et al (2011) Successful pregnancy in a living-related kidney transplant recipient who received sirolimus throughout the whole gestation. Transplantation 91(9):e69–e71. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3182154267
Frank B, Perdrizet GA, White HM, Marsh JW, Lemann W, Woodle ES (1993) Neurotoxicity of FK 506 in liver transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 25(2):1887–1888
Fröhlich GM, Rufibach K, Enseleit F et al (2012) Statins and the risk of cancer after heart transplantation. Circulation 126(4):440 LP–440447. http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/126/4/440.abstract
Gonzalez-Vilchez F, Vazquez de Prada JA, Almenar L et al (2012) Withdrawal of proliferation signal inhibitors due to adverse events in the maintenance phase of heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 31(3):288–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2011.10.011
Gozdowska J, Urbanowicz AL, Galazka Z, Chmura A, Durlik M (2011) Tolerance of enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium in combination with calcineurin inhibitor in kidney transplant recipients: polish experience. Transplant Proc 43(8):2946–2949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2011.08.056
Graham AF, Rider AK, Caves PK et al (1974) Acute rejection in the long-term cardiac transplant survivor. Clinical diagnosis, treatment and significance. Circulation 49(2):361–366
Grimm M, Rinaldi M, Yonan NA et al (2006) Superior prevention of acute rejection by tacrolimus vs. cyclosporine in heart transplant recipients – a large European trial. Am J Transplant 6(6):1387–1397. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2006.01300.x
Grino JM, Sabate I, Castelao AM, Alsina J (1986) Influence of diltiazem on cyclosporin clearance. Lancet (London, England) 1(8494):1387
Groetzner J, Kaczmarek I, Landwehr P et al (2004) Renal recovery after conversion to a calcineurin inhibitor-free immunosuppression in late cardiac transplant recipients. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 25(3):333–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejcts.2003.11.030
Guba M, von Breitenbuch P, Steinbauer M et al (2002) Rapamycin inhibits primary and metastatic tumor growth by antiangiogenesis: involvement of vascular endothelial growth factor. Nat Med 8(2):128–135. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm0202-128
Gude E, Gullestad L, Arora S et al (2010) Benefit of early conversion from CNI-based to everolimus-based immunosuppression in heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 29(6):641–647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2010.01.005
Guethoff S, Stroeh K, Grinninger C et al (2015) De novo sirolimus with low-dose tacrolimus versus full-dose tacrolimus with mycophenolate mofetil after heart transplantation – 8-year results. J Heart Lung Transplant 34(5):634–642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2014.11.025
Gullestad L, Iversen M, Mortensen S-A et al (2010) Everolimus with reduced calcineurin inhibitor in thoracic transplant recipients with renal dysfunction: a multicenter, randomized trial. Transplantation 89(7):864–872. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181cbac2d
Hebert MF, Lam AY (1999) Diltiazem increases tacrolimus concentrations. Ann Pharmacother 33(6):680–682. https://doi.org/10.1345/aph.18356
Hebert MF, Townsend RW, Austin S et al (2005) Concomitant cyclosporine and micafungin pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol 45(8):954–960. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091270005278601. 45/8/954 [pii]\r
Heidt S, Roelen DL, Eijsink C, van Kooten C, Claas FHJ, Mulder A (2008) Effects of immunosuppressive drugs on purified human B cells: evidence supporting the use of MMF and rapamycin. Transplantation 86(9):1292–1300. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181874a36
Herman M, Weinstein T, Korzets A et al (2001) Effect of cyclosporin A on DNA repair and cancer incidence in kidney transplant recipients. J Lab Clin Med 137(1):14–20. https://doi.org/10.1067/mlc.2001.111469
Hong JC, Kahan BD (2000) Sirolimus-induced thrombocytopenia and leukopenia in renal transplant recipients: risk factors, incidence, progression, and management. Transplantation 69(10):2085–2090
Hoorn EJ, Walsh SB, McCormick JA et al (2011) The calcineurin inhibitor tacrolimus activates the renal sodium chloride cotransporter to cause hypertension. Nat Med 17(10):1304–1309. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.2497
Hortelano S, Castilla M, Torres AM, Tejedor A, Bosca L (2000) Potentiation by nitric oxide of cyclosporin a and FK506-induced apoptosis in renal proximal tubule cells. J Am Soc Nephrol 11(12):2315–2323
Hosenpud JD, Bennett LE (2001) Mycophenolate mofetil versus azathioprine in patients surviving the initial cardiac transplant hospitalization: an analysis of the Joint UNOS/ISHLT Thoracic Registry. Transplantation 72(10):1662–1665
Israni A, Brozena S, Pankewycz O, Grossman R, Bloom R (2016) Conversion to tacrolimus for the treatment of cyclosporine-associated nephrotoxicity in heart transplant recipients. Am J Kidney Dis 39(3):e16.1–e16.5. https://doi.org/10.1053/ajkd.2002.31427
Jacobson PA, Oetting WS, Brearley AM et al (2011) Novel polymorphisms associated with tacrolimus trough concentrations: results from a multicenter kidney transplant consortium. Transplantation 91(3):300–308. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e318200e991
Jain S, Bicknell GR, Nicholson ML (2000) Tacrolimus has less fibrogenic potential than cyclosporin a in a model of renal ischaemia-reperfusion injury. Br J Surg 87(11):1563–1568. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2168.2000.01576.x
Johnson MR (1992) Transplant coronary disease: nonimmunologic risk factors. J Heart Lung Transplant 11(3 Pt 2):S124–S132
Kaczmarek I, Ertl B, Schmauss D et al (2006) Preventing cardiac allograft vasculopathy: long-term beneficial effects of mycophenolate mofetil. J Heart Lung Transplant 25(5):550–556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2006.01.003
Kaczmarek I, Zaruba M-M, Beiras-Fernandez A et al (2013) Tacrolimus with mycophenolate mofetil or sirolimus compared with calcineurin inhibitor-free immunosuppression (sirolimus/mycophenolate mofetil) after heart transplantation: 5-year results. J Heart Lung Transplant 32(3):277–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2012.11.028
Kahan BD (1989) Cyclosporine. N Engl J Med 321(25):1725–1738. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198912213212507
Kahan BD, Camardo JS (2001) Rapamycin: clinical results and future opportunities. Transplantation 72(7):1181–1193
Kainz A, Harabacz I, Cowlrick IS, Gadgil SD, Hagiwara D (2000) Review of the course and outcome of 100 pregnancies in 84 women treated with tacrolimus. Transplantation 70(12):1718–1721
Keogh A, Macdonald P, Mundy J, Chang V, Harvison A, Spratt P (1992) Five-year follow-up of a randomized double-drug versus triple-drug therapy immunosuppressive trial after heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 11(3 Pt 1):550–555. discussion 556
Keogh A, Spratt P, McCosker C, Macdonald P, Mundy J, Kaan A (1995) Ketoconazole to reduce the need for cyclosporine after cardiac transplantation. N Engl J Med 333(10):628–633. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199509073331004
Keogh A, Richardson M, Ruygrok P et al (2004) Sirolimus in de novo heart transplant recipients reduces acute rejection and prevents coronary artery disease at 2 years: a randomized clinical trial. Circulation 110(17):2694–2700. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000136812.90177.94
King-Biggs MB, Dunitz JM, Park SJ, Kay Savik S, Hertz MI (2003) Airway anastomotic dehiscence associated with use of sirolimus immediately after lung transplantation. Transplantation 75(9):1437–1443. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.TP.0000064083.02120.2C
Klein IH, Abrahams A, van Ede T, Hene RJ, Koomans HA, Ligtenberg G (2002) Different effects of tacrolimus and cyclosporine on renal hemodynamics and blood pressure in healthy subjects. Transplantation 73(5):732–736. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=11907418
Knight SR, Morris PJ (2007) The clinical benefits of cyclosporine C2-level monitoring: a systematic review. Transplantation 83(12):1525–1535. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000268306.41196.2c
Kobashigawa JA, Katznelson S, Laks H et al (1995) Effect of pravastatin on outcomes after cardiac transplantation. N Engl J Med 333(10):621–627. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199509073331003
Kobashigawa J, Miller L, Renlund D et al (1998) A randomized active-controlled trial of mycophenolate mofetil in heart transplant recipients. Mycophenolate Mofetil Investigators. Transplantation 66(4):507–515
Kobashigawa JA, Tobis JM, Starling RC et al (2005) Multicenter intravascular ultrasound validation study among heart transplant recipients: outcomes after five years. J Am Coll Cardiol 45(9):1532–1537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2005.02.035
Kobashigawa JA, Miller LW, Russell SD et al (2006a) Tacrolimus with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) or sirolimus vs. cyclosporine with MMF in cardiac transplant patients: 1-year report. Am J Transplant 6(6):1377–1386. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2006.01290.x
Kobashigawa JA, Tobis JM, Mentzer RM et al (2006b) Mycophenolate mofetil reduces intimal thickness by intravascular ultrasound after heart transplant: reanalysis of the multicenter trial. Am J Transplant 6(5 Pt 1):993–997. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2006.01297.x
Kobashigawa JA, Pauly DF, Starling RC et al (2013) Cardiac allograft vasculopathy by intravascular ultrasound in heart transplant patients: substudy from the Everolimus versus mycophenolate mofetil randomized, multicenter trial. JACC Heart Fail 1(5):389–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchf.2013.07.002
Kovarik JM, Hartmann S, Figueiredo J et al (2002) Effect of food on everolimus absorption: quantification in healthy subjects and a confirmatory screening in patients with renal transplants. Pharmacotherapy 22(2):154–159
Kubo SH, Naftel DC, Mills RMJ et al (1995) Risk factors for late recurrent rejection after heart transplantation: a multiinstitutional, multivariable analysis. Cardiac Transplant Research Database Group. J Heart Lung Transplant 14(3):409–418
Kurtz A, Della Bruna R, Kühn K (1988) Cyclosporine a enhances renin secretion and production in isolated juxtaglomerular cells. Kidney Int 33(5):947–953. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1988.92
Kushwaha SS, Khalpey Z, Frantz RP et al (2005) Sirolimus in cardiac transplantation: use as a primary immunosuppressant in calcineurin inhibitor-induced nephrotoxicity. J Heart Lung Transplant 24(12):2129–2136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2005.08.015
Lam S, Partovi N, Ting LSL, Ensom MHH (2008) Corticosteroid interactions with cyclosporine, tacrolimus, mycophenolate, and sirolimus: fact or fiction? Ann Pharmacother 42(7):1037–1047. https://doi.org/10.1345/aph.1K62B
Lane JT, Dagogo-Jack S (2011) Approach to the patient with new-onset diabetes after transplant (NODAT). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96(11):3289–3297. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-0657
Laskow DA, Curtis JJ, Luke RG et al (1990) Cyclosporine-induced changes in glomerular filtration rate and urea excretion. Am J Med 88(5):497–502
Lee CH, Kim G-H (2007) Electrolyte and acid-base disturbances induced by clacineurin inhibitors. Electrolyte Blood Press 5(2):126–130. https://doi.org/10.5049/EBP.2007.5.2.126
Leenen FHH, Coletta E, Davies RA (2007) Prevention of renal dysfunction and hypertension by amlodipine after heart transplant. Am J Cardiol 100(3):531–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2007.03.058
Lehmkuhl HB, Arizon J, Vigano M et al (2009) Everolimus with reduced cyclosporine versus MMF with standard cyclosporine in de novo heart transplant recipients. Transplantation 88(1):115–122. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181aacd22
Letavernier E, Bruneval P, Mandet C et al (2007) High sirolimus levels may induce focal segmental glomerulosclerosis de novo. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2(2):326–333. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.03751106
Lexicomp Online Azathioprine. http://online.lexi.com/lco/action/doc/retrieve/docid/patch_f/6404. Accessed 1 Jan 2016
Lexicomp Online Cyclosporine. http://online.lexi.com/lco/action/doc/retrieve/docid/patch_f/1772084. Accessed 1 Jan 2016
Lexicomp Online Everolimus. http://online.lexi.com/lco/action/doc/retrieve/docid/patch_f/1700399. Accessed 1 Jan 2016
Lexicomp Online Sirolimus. http://online.lexi.com/lco/action/doc/retrieve/docid/patch_f/7670. Accessed 1 Jan 2016
Lexicomp Online Tacrolimus. http://online.lexi.com/lco/action/doc/retrieve/docid/patch_f/1801799. Accessed 1 Jan 2016
Lin HY, Rocher LL, McQuillan MA, Schmaltz S, Palella TD, Fox IH (1989) Cyclosporine-induced hyperuricemia and gout. N Engl J Med 321(5):287–292. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198908033210504
Lin C-C, King K-L, Chao Y-W, Yang AH, Chang C-F, Yang W-C (2003) Tacrolimus-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome: a case analysis. J Nephrol 16(4):580–585
Lindelow B, Bergh CH, Herlitz H, Waagstein F (2000) Predictors and evolution of renal function during 9 years following heart transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol 11(5):951–957
Lindenfeld J, Miller GG, Shakar SF et al (2004) Drug therapy in the heart transplant recipient: part II: immunosuppressive drugs. Circulation 110(25):3858–3865. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000150332.42276.69
Livi U, Luciani GB, Boffa GM et al (1993) Clinical results of steroid-free induction immunosuppression after heart transplantation. Ann Thorac Surg 55(5):1160–1165
Lunardi C, Bason C, Corrocher R, Puccetti A (2005) Induction of endothelial cell damage by hCMV molecular mimicry. Trends Immunol 26(1):19–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2004.10.009
Lund LH, Edwards LB, Kucheryavaya AY et al (2013) The registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: thirtieth official adult heart transplant report – 2013; focus theme: age. J Heart Lung Transplant 32(10):951–964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2013.08.006
Lund LH, Edwards LB, Kucheryavaya AY et al (2015) The registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: thirty-second official adult heart transplantation report – 2015; focus theme: early graft failure. J Heart Lung Transplant 34(10):1244–1254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2015.08.003
Lund LH, Edwards LB, Kucheryavaya AY et al (2016) The registry of the international society for heart and lung transplantation: thirty-second official adult heart transplantation report – 2015; Focus theme: early graft failure. J Heart Lung Transplant 34(10):1244–1254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2015.08.003
Mahdavi M, Hejri GM (2016) Oral ulcerations induced by mycophenolate Mofetil following cardiac transplant. Exp Clin Transplant 14(5):584–585
Mahe E, Morelon E, Lechaton S et al (2005) Cutaneous adverse events in renal transplant recipients receiving sirolimus-based therapy. Transplantation 79(4):476–482
Maluccio M, Sharma V, Lagman M et al (2003) Tacrolimus enhances transforming growth factor-beta1 expression and promotes tumor progression. Transplantation 76(3):597–602. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.TP.0000081399.75231.3B
Marx SO, Jayaraman T, Go LO, Marks AR (1995) Rapamycin-FKBP inhibits cell cycle regulators of proliferation in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ Res 76(3):412–417
Masetti M, Potena L, Nardozza M et al (2013) Differential effect of everolimus on progression of early and late cardiac allograft vasculopathy in current clinical practice. Am J Transplant 13(5):1217–1226. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.12208
Matsunami C, Hilton AF, Dyer JA, Rumbach OW, Hardie IR (1994) Ocular complications in renal transplant patients. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol 22(1):53–57
Matsuo Y, Cassar A, Yoshino S et al (2013) Attenuation of cardiac allograft vasculopathy by sirolimus: relationship to time interval after heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 32(8):784–791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2013.05.015
McDonald RA, Smith JM, Ho M et al (2008) Incidence of PTLD in pediatric renal transplant recipients receiving basiliximab, calcineurin inhibitor, sirolimus and steroids. Am J Transplant 8(5):984–989. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2008.02167.x
Mehra MR, Canter CE, Hannan MM et al (2016) The 2016 International Society for Heart Lung Transplantation listing criteria for heart transplantation: a 10-year update. J Heart Lung Transplant 35(1):1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2015.10.023
Moritz MJ, Constantinescu S, Coscia LA, Armenti D (2017) Mycophenolate and pregnancy: teratology principles and National Transplantation Pregnancy Registry Experience. Am J Transplant 17(2):581–582. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.14085
Myers BD, Newton L (1991) Cyclosporine-induced chronic nephropathy: an obliterative microvascular renal injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 2(2 Suppl 1):S45–S52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=1932643
Nair SS, Sarasamma S, Gracious N, George J, Anish TSN, Radhakrishnan R (2015) Polymorphism of the CYP3A5 gene and its effect on tacrolimus blood level. Exp Clin Transplant 13(Suppl 1):197–200
Nakahama H (1990) Stimulatory effect of cyclosporine a on endothelin secretion by a cultured renal epithelial cell line, LLC-PK1 cells. Eur J Pharmacol 180(1):191–192
National Transplantation Pregnancy Registry Annual Report (n.d.). https://www.transplantpregnancyregistry.org/publications-collaborations/. Accessed 11 Mar 2017
Neylan JF (1998) Racial differences in renal transplantation after immunosuppression with tacrolimus versus cyclosporine. FK506 Kidney Transplant Study Group. Transplantation 65(4):515–523
O’Neill JO, Edwards LB, Taylor DO (2006) Mycophenolate mofetil and risk of developing malignancy after orthotopic heart transplantation: analysis of the transplant registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 25(10):1186–1191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2006.06.010
Oetting WS, Schladt DP, Guan W et al (2016) Genomewide association study of tacrolimus concentrations in African American kidney transplant recipients identifies multiple CYP3A5 alleles. Am J Transplant 16(2):574–582. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.13495
Ojo AO, Held PJ, Port FK et al (2003) Chronic renal failure after transplantation of a nonrenal organ. N Engl J Med 349(10):931–940. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa021744
Olyaei AJ, de Mattos AM, Bennett WM (2001) Nephrotoxicity of immunosuppressive drugs: new insight and preventive strategies. Curr Opin Crit Care 7(6):384–389
Onrust SV, Wiseman LR (1999) Basiliximab. Drugs 57(2):207–213. discussion 214
Opelz G, Henderson R (1993) Incidence of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in kidney and heart transplant recipients. Lancet (Lond) 342(8886–8887):1514–1516
Opelz G, Dohler B, Laux G (2005) Long-term prospective study of steroid withdrawal in kidney and heart transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 5(4 Pt 1):720–728. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2004.00765.x
Page RL, Miller GG, Lindenfeld J (2005) Drug therapy in the heart transplant recipient. Circulation 111(2):230 LP–230239. http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/111/2/230.abstract
Pascual J, Galeano C, Royuela A, Zamora J (2010) A systematic review on steroid withdrawal between 3 and 6 months after kidney transplantation. Transplantation 90(4):343–349. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181e58912
Patel S, Kwan JT, McCloskey E et al (2001) Prevalence and causes of low bone density and fractures in kidney transplant patients. J Bone Miner Res 16(10):1863–1870. https://doi.org/10.1359/jbmr.2001.16.10.1863
Peddi VR, Wiseman A, Chavin K, Slakey D (2013) Review of combination therapy with mTOR inhibitors and tacrolimus minimization after transplantation. Transplant Rev (Orlando) 27(4):97–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trre.2013.06.001
Penninga L, Moller CH, Gustafsson F, Steinbruchel DA, Gluud C (2010) Tacrolimus versus cyclosporine as primary immunosuppression after heart transplantation: systematic review with meta-analyses and trial sequential analyses of randomised trials. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 66(12):1177–1187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00228-010-0902-6
Pennington CA, Park JM (2015) Sublingual tacrolimus as an alternative to oral administration for solid organ transplant recipients. Am J Heal Pharm 72(4):277–284. https://doi.org/10.2146/ajhp140322
Perez-Miralles F, Sanchez-Manso JC, Almenar-Bonet L, Sevilla-Mantecon T, Martinez-Dolz L, Vilchez-Padilla JJ (2005) Incidence of and risk factors for neurologic complications after heart transplantation. Transplant Proc 37(9):4067–4070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2005.09.162
Podder H, Stepkowski SM, Napoli KL et al (2001) Pharmacokinetic interactions augment toxicities of sirolimus/cyclosporine combinations. J Am Soc Nephrol 12(5):1059–1071
Potena L, Prestinenzi P, Bianchi IG et al (2012) Cyclosporine lowering with everolimus versus mycophenolate mofetil in heart transplant recipients: long-term follow-up of the SHIRAKISS randomized, prospective study. J Heart Lung Transplant 31(6):565–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2012.01.002
Raichlin E, Khalpey Z, Kremers W et al (2007a) Replacement of calcineurin-inhibitors with sirolimus as primary immunosuppression in stable cardiac transplant recipients. Transplantation 84(4):467–474. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000276959.56959.69
Raichlin E, Bae J-H, Khalpey Z et al (2007b) Conversion to sirolimus as primary immunosuppression attenuates the progression of allograft vasculopathy after cardiac transplantation. Circulation 116(23):2726–2733. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.692996
Ramamoorthy S, Cidlowski JA (2016) Corticosteroids: mechanisms of action in health and disease. Rheum Dis Clin N Am 42(1):15–31,. vii. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rdc.2015.08.002
Ratkovec RM, Wray RB, Renlund DG et al (1990) Influence of corticosteroid-free maintenance immunosuppression on allograft coronary artery disease after cardiac transplantation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 100(1):6–12
Reichart B, Meiser B, Vigano M et al (2001) European multicenter tacrolimus heart pilot study: three year follow-up. J Heart Lung Transplant 20(2):249–250
Renlund DG, Gopinathan SK, Kfoury AG, Taylor DO (1996) Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) in heart transplantation: rejection prevention and treatment. Clin Transpl 10(1 Pt 2):136–139
Renner E, Horber FF, Jost G, Frey BM, Frey FJ (1986) Effect of liver function on the metabolism of prednisone and prednisolone in humans. Gastroenterology 90(4):819–828
Rider AK, Copeland JG, Hunt SA et al (1975) The status of cardiac transplantation, 1975. Circulation 52(4):531–539
Roberts P, Follette D, Allen R, Katznelson S, Albertson T (1998) Cyclosporine A-associated thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura following lung transplantation. Transplant Proc 30(4):1512–1513
Rosenbaum DH, Adams BC, Mitchell JD et al (2006) Effects of early steroid withdrawal after heart transplantation. Ann Thorac Surg 82(2):637–644;. discussion 644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.athoracsur.2006.03.067
Ruggenenti P, Perico N, Mosconi L et al (1993) Calcium channel blockers protect transplant patients from cyclosporine-induced daily renal hypoperfusion. Kidney Int 43(3):706–711. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1993.101
Ruschitzka F, Meier PJ, Turina M, Lüscher TF, Noll G (2000) Acute heart transplant rejection due to Saint John’s wort. Lancet 355(9203):548–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(99)05467-7
Sadoni S, Kaczmarek I, Delgado O, Schmockel M, Reichart B, Meiser B (2007) Fluvastatin as co-medication in heart transplant recipients with elevated creatine-kinase. Transplant Proc 39(2):558–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2006.12.009
Sampaio MS, Cho YW, Qazi Y, Bunnapradist S, Hutchinson IV, Shah T (2012) Posttransplant malignancies in solid organ adult recipients: an analysis of the U.S. National Transplant Database. Transplantation 94(10):990–998. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e318270bc7b
Schena FP, Pascoe MD, Alberu J et al (2009) Conversion from calcineurin inhibitors to sirolimus maintenance therapy in renal allograft recipients: 24-month efficacy and safety results from the CONVERT trial. Transplantation 87(2):233–242. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181927a41
Schiff J, Cole E, Cantarovich M (2007) Therapeutic monitoring of calcineurin inhibitors for the nephrologist. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2(2):374–384. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.03791106
Schmidbauer G, Hancock WW, Wasowska B, Badger AM, Kupiec-Weglinski JW (1994) Abrogation by rapamycin of accelerated rejection in sensitized rats by inhibition of alloantibody responses and selective suppression of intragraft mononuclear and endothelial cell activation, cytokine production, and cell adhesion. Transplantation 57(6):933–941
Shah MB, Martin JE, Schroeder TJ, First MR (1998) Evaluation of the safety and tolerability of Neoral and Sandimmune: a meta-analysis. Transplant Proc 30(5):1697–1700
Shihab FS, Bennett WM, Tanner AM, Andoh TF (1997) Angiotensin II blockade decreases TGF-beta1 and matrix proteins in cyclosporine nephropathy. Kidney Int 52(3):660–673
Sifontis NM, Benedetti E, Vasquez EM (2002) Clinically significant drug interaction between basiliximab and tacrolimus in renal transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 34(5):1730–1732
Sikma MA, Van Maarseveen EM, Van De Graaf EA et al (2015) Pharmacokinetics and toxicity of tacrolimus early after heart and lung transplantation. Am J Transplant 15(9):2301–2313. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.13309
Sofroniadou S, Kassimatis T, Goldsmith D (2010) Anaemia, microcytosis and sirolimus – is iron the missing link? Nephrol Dial Transplant 25(5):1667–1675. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfp674
Song ATW, Abdala E, Bonazzi PR, Bacchella T, Machado MCC (2006) Does mycophenolate mofetil increase the risk of cytomegalovirus infection in solid organ transplant recipients? – A mini-review. Braz J Infect Dis 10(2):132–138
Staatz CE, Tett SE (2007) Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of mycophenolate in solid organ transplant recipients. Clin Pharmacokinet 46(1):13–58. https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200746010-00002
Stehlik J, Edwards LB, Kucheryavaya AY et al (2011) The registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: twenty-eighth adult heart transplant report – 2011. J Heart Lung Transplant 30(10):1078–1094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2011.08.003
Stone BG, Udani M, Sanghvi A et al (1987) Cyclosporin A-induced cholestasis. The mechanism in a rat model. Gastroenterology 93(2):344–351
Tambur AR, Pamboukian SV, Costanzo M-R et al (2005) The presence of HLA-directed antibodies after heart transplantation is associated with poor allograft outcome. Transplantation 80(8):1019–1025
Taylor DO, Bristow MR, O’Connell JB et al (1996) Improved long-term survival after heart transplantation predicted by successful early withdrawal from maintenance corticosteroid therapy. J Heart Lung Transplant 15(10):1039–1046
Taylor DO, Barr ML, Radovancevic B et al (1999) A randomized, multicenter comparison of tacrolimus and cyclosporine immunosuppressive regimens in cardiac transplantation: decreased hyperlipidemia and hypertension with tacrolimus. J Heart Lung Transplant 18(4):336–345
Tayyem O, Saraireh H, Al Hanayneh M, Stevenson HL (2018) Heart transplant recipient with mycophenolate mofetil-induced colitis: the great imitator. BMJ Case Rep. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2017-224035
Tedoriya T, Keogh AM, Kusano K et al (2002) Reversal of chronic cyclosporine nephrotoxicity after heart transplantation-potential role of mycophenolate mofetil. J Heart Lung Transplant 21(9):976–982
Tenderich G, Fuchs U, Zittermann A, Muckelbauer R, Berthold HK, Koerfer R (2007) Comparison of sirolimus and everolimus in their effects on blood lipid profiles and haematological parameters in heart transplant recipients. Clin Transpl 21(4):536–543. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-0012.2007.00686.x
Teuteberg JJ, Shullo M, Zomak R, McNamara D, McCurry K, Kormos RL (2008) Aggressive steroid weaning after cardiac transplantation is possible without the additional risk of significant rejection. Clin Transpl 22(6):730–737. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-0012.2008.00868.x
Thibodeau JT, Mishkin JD, Patel PC et al (2012) Sirolimus use and incidence of venous thromboembolism in cardiac transplant recipients. Clin Transpl 26(6):953–959. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-0012.2012.01677.x
Topilsky Y, Hasin T, Raichlin E et al (2012) Sirolimus as primary immunosuppression attenuates allograft vasculopathy with improved late survival and decreased cardiac events after cardiac transplantation. Circulation 125(5):708–720. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.040360
(2009) TPMT testing before azathioprine therapy? Drug Ther Bull 47(1):9–12. https://doi.org/10.1136/dtb.2008.12.0033
Tricot L, Lebbe C, Pillebout E, Martinez F, Legendre C, Thervet E (2005) Tacrolimus-induced alopecia in female kidney-pancreas transplant recipients. Transplantation 80(11):1546–1549
Trimarchi HM, Truong LD, Brennan S, Gonzalez JM, Suki WN (1999) FK506-associated thrombotic microangiopathy: report of two cases and review of the literature. Transplantation 67(4):539–544. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10071024
Trofe-Clark J, Lemonovich TL (2013) Practice the ASTIDC of interactions between anti-infective agents and immunosuppressants in solid organ transplantation. Am J Transplant 13(s4):318–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.12123
Tsutsui H, Ziada KM, Schoenhagen P et al (2001) Lumen loss in transplant coronary artery disease is a biphasic process involving early intimal thickening and late constrictive remodeling: results from a 5-year serial intravascular ultrasound study. Circulation 104(6):653–657
Ueno P, Felipe C, Ferreira A et al (2016) Wound healing complications in kidney transplant recipients receiving everolimus. Transplantation. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000001392
Utecht KN, Hiles JJ, Kolesar J (2006) Effects of genetic polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics of calcineurin inhibitors. Am J Heal Pharm 63(23):2340 LP–2342348. http://www.ajhp.org/content/63/23/2340.abstract
Venkat Raman G, Sharman VL, Lee H (1990) a. Azathioprine and allopurinol: a potentially dangerous combination. J Intern Med 228(1):69–71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2384739
Veroux M, Corona D, Veroux P (2011) Pregnancy under everolimus-based immunosuppression. Transpl Int 24(12):e115–e117. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-2277.2011.01356.x
Wang M (2005) The role of glucocorticoid action in the pathophysiology of the metabolic syndrome. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2(1):3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-2-3
Wang AS, Armstrong EJ, Armstrong AW (2013) Corticosteroids and wound healing: clinical considerations in the perioperative period. Am J Surg 206(3):410–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2012.11.018
Wang Y-J, Chi N-H, Chou N-K et al (2016) Malignancy after heart transplantation under Everolimus versus mycophenolate Mofetil immunosuppression. Transplant Proc 48(3):969–973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2015.12.071
Wingard JR, Kubilis P, Lee L et al (1999) Clinical significance of nephrotoxicity in patients treated with amphotericin B for suspected or proven aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 29(6):1402–1407. https://doi.org/10.1086/313498
Woytowitz D, Smith RE, Mehta RP (2013) Tacrolimus-induced refractory immune thrombocytopenia in solid organ transplant patients. Mathew A, ed. Blood 122(21):2317 LP–2312317. http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/122/21/2317.abstract
Yacoub M, Alivizatos P, Kaghani AMA (1985) The use of cyclosporine, azathioprine, and antithymocyte globulin with or without low-dose steroids for immunosuppression of cardiac transplant patients. Transplant Proc 17(1):221–222
Yagdi T, Sharples L, Tsui S, Large S, Parameshwar J (2009) Malignancy after heart transplantation: analysis of 24-year experience at a single center. J Card Surg 24(5):572–579. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-8191.2009.00858.x
Yale SH, Limper AH (1996) Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: associated illness and prior corticosteroid therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 71(1):5–13
Yamani MH, Taylor DO, Czerr J et al (2008) Thymoglobulin induction and steroid avoidance in cardiac transplantation: results of a prospective, randomized, controlled study. Clin Transpl 22(1):76–81
Ye F, Ying-Bin X, Yu-Guo W, Hetzer R (2009) Tacrolimus versus cyclosporine microemulsion for heart transplant recipients: a meta-analysis. J Heart Lung Transplant 28(1):58–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2008.10.004
Yoosabai A, Mehta A, Kang W et al (2015) Pretransplant malignancy as a risk factor for posttransplant malignancy after heart transplantation. Transplantation 99(2):345–350. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000000563
Zaltzman JS, Lai V, Schulz MZ, Moon K-H, Cherney DZ (2014) A randomized cross-over comparison of short-term exposure of once-daily extended release tacrolimus and twice-daily tacrolimus on renal function in healthy volunteers. Transpl Int 27(12):1294–1302. https://doi.org/10.1111/tri.12435
Zhang W, Victor RG (2000) Calcineurin inhibitors cause renal afferent activation in rats: a novel mechanism of cyclosporine-induced hypertension. Am J Hypertens 13(9):999–1004
Zietse R, Balk AH, vd Dorpel MA, Meeter K, Bos E, Weimar W (1994) Time course of the decline in renal function in cyclosporine-treated heart transplant recipients. Am J Nephrol 14(1):1–5
Zimmerman JJ, Ferron GM, Lim HK, Parker V (1999) The effect of a high-fat meal on the oral bioavailability of the immunosuppressant sirolimus (rapamycin). J Clin Pharmacol 39(11):1155–1161
Zuckermann A, Arizon JM, Dong G et al (2011) Impact of de novo everolimus-based immunosuppression on incisional complications in heart transplantation. Transplantation 92(5):594–600. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3182279133
Zuckermann A, Keogh A, Crespo-Leiro MG et al (2012) Randomized controlled trial of sirolimus conversion in cardiac transplant recipients with renal insufficiency. Am J Transplant 12(9):2487–2497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2012.04131.x
Zuckermann A, Eisen H, See Tai S, Li H, Hahn C, Crespo-Leiro MG (2014) Sirolimus conversion after heart transplant: risk factors for acute rejection and predictors of renal function response. Am J Transplant 14(9):2048–2054. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.12833
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Bianco, C.M., Robinson, M.R. (2019). Chronic Immunosuppression Medications. In: Bogar, L., Mountis, M. (eds) Contemporary Heart Transplantation. Organ and Tissue Transplantation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33280-2_23-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33280-2_23-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-33280-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-33280-2
eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine