Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Functional Anatomy and Histology of the Testis

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Endocrinology of the Testis and Male Reproduction

Part of the book series: Endocrinology ((ENDOCR))

Abstract

The human testis is a paired endocrine and exocrine organ producing sex steroid hormones and mature haploid sperm. The latter are transported into the epididymis for further maturation and storage.

Especially the endocrine function requires a specific anatomical and histological structure of the testis, i.e., a special “location” of the testis outside the body in the scrotum, a sophisticated blood supply, and the development of lobes within the testis containing seminiferous tubules surrounded by the interstitial compartment.

Within the seminiferous tubules, both somatic Sertoli cells and different germ cell developmental stages can be described. As “nursery cells,” Sertoli cells build up the blood-testis barrier. This is required for preventing the meiotic germ cells from the own immune system and for creating a microenvironment essential for the germ cells development. Certain hormone receptors, such as androgen and estrogen receptors, specific secretions products, such as androgen binding protein, and special structural features are provided by Sertoli cells. Most interestingly, structural features of the Sertoli cells include basal and apical ectoplasmic specializations. These are required both for blood-testis barrier formation and for linking elongated spermatids within the Sertoli cell cytoplasm until sperm release. As an important part of the functional histology of the testis, Sertoli cell structure and function will be discussed in this chapter.

Additionally, stages of spermatogenesis with the different germ cell differentiation steps will be described for a broad overview of testicular histology. Within the interstitial compartment, not only well-known steroid-producing Leydig cells are present but also certain cells of the immune system (mainly macrophages), lymph and blood vessels, as well as rarely seen nerve fibers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ahmed EA, Barten-van Rijbroek AD, Kal HB, Sadri-Ardekani H, Mizrak SC, van Pelt AMM, de Rooij DG. Proliferative activity in vitro and DNA repair indicate that adult mouse and human Sertoli cells are not terminally differentiated, quiescent cells. Biol Reprod. 2009;80:1084–91. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.108.071662.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albrecht M. Insights into the nature of human testicular peritubular cells. Ann Anat. 2009;191:532–40. doi:10.1016/j.aanat.2009.08.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albrecht M, Frungieri MB, Gonzalez-Calvar S, Meineke V, Köhn FM, Mayerhofer A. Evidence for a histaminergic system in the human testis. Fertil Steril. 2005;83:1060–3. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2004.12.002.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albrecht M, Rämsch R, Köhn FM, Schwarzer JU, Mayerhofer A. Isolation and cultivation of human testicular peritubular cells: a new model for the investigation of fibrotic processes in the human testis and male infertility. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:1956–60. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-2169.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amann RP. The cycle of the seminiferous epithelium in humans: a need to revisit? J Androl. 2008;29:469–87. doi:10.2164/jandrol.107.004655.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergmann M, Dierichs R. Postnatal formation of the blood-testis barrier in the rat with special reference to the initiation of meiosis. Anat Embryol. 1983;168:269–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergmann M, Kliesch S. The distribution pattern of cytokeratin and vimentin immunoreactivity in testicular biopsies of infertile men. Anat Embryol. 1994;190:515–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergmann M, Kliesch S. Testicular biopsy and histology. In: Nieschlag E, Behre HM, Nieschlag S, editors. Andrology. Male reproductive health and dysfunction. 3rd ed. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2010. p. 155–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergmann M, Nashan D, Nieschlag E. Pattern of compartmentation in human seminiferous tubules showing dislocation of spermatogonia. Cell Tissue Res. 1989;256:183–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berney DM, Looijenga LHJ, Idrees M, Oosterhuis JW, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Ulbright TM, Skakkebaek NE. Germ cell neoplasia in situ (GCNIS): evolution of the current nomenclature for testicular pre-invasive germ cell malignancy. Histopathology. 2016;69:7–10. doi:10.1111/his.12958.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berruti G, Paiardi C. The dynamic of the apical ectoplasmic specialization between spermatids and Sertoli cells: the case of the small GTPase Rap1. Biomed Res Int. 2014;635979. doi:10.1155/2014/635979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruning G, Dierichs R, Stümpel C, Bergmann M. Sertoli cell nuclear changes in human testicular biopsies as revealed by three dimensional reconstruction. Andrologia. 1993;25:311–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen AK. A history of Leydig cell research. In: Payne AH, Hardy MP, editors. The Leydig cell in health and disease. Totowa: Humana Press; 2007. p. 3–31.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Clermont Y. The cycle of the seminiferous epithelium in man. Am J Anat. 1963;112:35–51. doi:10.1002/aja.1001120103.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comhaire F, Mahmoud A. Cause: varicocele. In: Schill W, Comhaire FH, Hargreave TB, editors. Andrology for the clinician. New York: Springer; 2006. p. 68–71.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cupp AS, Skinner MK. Embryonic Sertoli cell differentiation. In: Skinner MK, Griswold MD, editors. Sertoli cell biology. Amsterdam/Boston: Elsevier Academic Press; 2005. p. 43–70.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Davidoff MS, Middendorff R, Müller D, Holstein AF. Fetal and adult Leydig cells are of common orig. In: The neuroendocrine Leydig cells and their stem cell progenitors, the pericytes. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2009. p. 89–103.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • de Felici M. The formation and migration of primordial germ cells in mouse and man. Results Probl Cell Differ. 2016;58:23–46. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31973-5_2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donner J, Kliesch S, Brehm R, Bergmann M. From carcinoma in situ to testicular germ cell tumour. APMIS. 2004;112:79–88. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0463.2004.apm1120201.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dyce KM, Sack WO, Wensing CJG. The urogenital apparatus. In: Dyce KM, Sack WO, Wensing CJG, editors. Textbook of veterinary anatomy. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2002. p. 166–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dym M, Fawcett DW. The blood-testis barrier in the rat and the physiological compartmentation of the seminiferous epithelium. Biol Reprod. 1970;3:308–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehmcke J, Wistuba J, Schlatt S. Spermatogonial stem cells: questions, models and perspectives. Hum Reprod Update. 2006;12:275–82. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmk001.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferlin A, Arredi B, Zuccarello D, Garolla A, Selice R, Foresta C. Paracrine and endocrine roles of insulin-like factor 3. J Endocrinol Investig. 2006;29:657–64. doi:10.1007/BF03344168.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fijak M, Bhushan S, Meinhardt A. Immunoprivileged sites: the testis. Methods Mol Biol. 2011;677:459–70. doi:10.1007/978-1-60761-869-0_29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fijak M, Damm L, Wenzel J, Aslani F, Walecki M, Wahle E, Eisel F, Bhushan S, Hackstein H, Baal N, Schuler G, Konrad L, Rafiq A, O’Hara L, Smith LB, Meinhardt A. Influence of testosterone on inflammatory response in testicular cells and expression of transcription factor Foxp3 in T cells. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2015;74:12–25. doi:10.1111/aji.12363.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gelmann EP. Molecular biology of the androgen receptor. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20:3001–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gores PF, Hayes DH, Copeland MJ, Korbutt GS, Halberstadt C, Kirkpatrick SA, Rajotte RV. Long-term survival of intratesticular porcine islets in nonimmunosuppressed beagles. Transplantation. 2003;75:613–8. doi:10.1097/01.TP.0000052376.89400.8D.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gray H. Anatomy of the human body. 20th ed. Philadelphia: Bartleby; 1918.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenbaum MP, Iwamori T, Buchold GM, Matzuk MM. Germ cell intercellular bridges. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2011;3:a005850. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a005850.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Griswold MD. The central role of Sertoli cells in spermatogenesis. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 1998;9:411–6. doi:10.1006/scdb.1998.0203.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hatano O, Takakusu A, Nomura M, Morohashi K-I. Identical origin of adrenal cortex and gonad revealed by expression profiles of Ad4BP/SF-1. Genes Cells. 1996;1(7):663–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holstein AF, Roosen-Runge EC. Atlas of human spermatogenesis. Berlin: Grosse; 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutson JM, Hasthorpe S, Heyns CF. Anatomical and functional aspects of testicular descent and cryptorchidism. Endocr Rev. 1997;18:259–80. doi:10.1210/edrv.18.2.0298.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isaac JR, Skinner S, Elliot R, Salto-Tellez M, Garkavenko O, Khoo A, Lee KO, Calne R, Wang DZ. Transplantation of neonatal porcine islets and Sertoli cells into nonimmunosuppressed nonhuman primates. Transplant Proc. 2005;37:487–8. doi:10.1016/j.transproceed.2004.11.062.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson MH. An immunological barrier in the guinea-pig testis. J Pathol. 1970;101:129–39. doi:10.1002/path.1711010208.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson L, Chaturvedi PK, Williams JD. Missing generations of spermatocytes and spermatids in seminiferous epithelium contribute to low efficiency of spermatogenesis in humans. Biol Reprod. 1992;47:1091–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein B, Haggeney T, Fietz D, Indumathy S, Loveland K, Hedger M, Kliesch S, Weidner W, Bergmann M, Schuppe H. Specific immune cell and cytokine characteristics of human testicular germ cell neoplasia. Hum Reprod. 2016;31(10):2192–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kliesch S, Behre HM, Hertle L, Bergmann M. Alteration of Sertoli cell differentiation in the presence of carcinoma in situ in human testes. J Urol. 1998;160:1894–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leydig F. Zur Anatomie der männlichen Geschlechtsorgane und Analdrüsen der Säugetiere. Z Wiss Zool. 1850;2:1–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luetjens CM, Weinbauer GF, Wistuba J. Primate spermatogenesis: new insights into comparative testicular organisation, spermatogenic efficiency and endocrine control. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2005;80:475–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Migaleddu V, Virgilio G, Del Prato A, Bertolotto M. Sonographic scrotal anatomy. In: Bertolotto M, Trombetta C, editors. Scrotal pathology. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2012. p. 41–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mruk DD, Cheng CY. Tight junctions in the testis: new perspectives. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci. 2010;365:1621–35. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0010.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito M, Itoh M. Patterns of infiltration of lymphocytes into the testis under normal and pathological conditions in mice. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2008;59:55–61. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0897.2007.00556.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ni K, Spiess A, Schuppe H, Steger K. The impact of sperm protamine deficiency and sperm DNA damage on human male fertility: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Andrology. 2016;4:789–99. doi:10.1111/andr.12216.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nieschlag E, Behre HM, Wieacker P, Meschede D, Kamischke A, Kliesch S. Disorders at the testicular level. In: Nieschlag E, Behre HM, Nieschlag S, editors. Andrology. Male reproductive health and dysfunction. 3rd ed. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2010. p. 194–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Donnell L, Nicholls PK, O’Bryan MK, McLachlan RI, Stanton PG. Spermiation: the process of sperm release. Spermatogenesis. 2011;1:14–35. doi:10.4161/spmg.1.1.14525.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pelletier R. The blood-testis barrier: the junctional permeability, the proteins and the lipids. Prog Histochem Cytochem. 2011;46:49–127. doi:10.1016/j.proghi.2011.05.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogenhofer N, Dansranjavin T, Schorsch M, Spiess A, Wang H, von Schonfeldt V, Cappallo-Obermann H, Baukloh V, Yang H, Paradowska A, Chen B, Thaler CJ, Weidner W, Schuppe H, Steger K. The sperm protamine mRNA ratio as a clinical parameter to estimate the fertilizing potential of men taking part in an ART programme. Hum Reprod. 2013;28:969–78. doi:10.1093/humrep/des471.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell L. Observations on rat Sertoli ectoplasmic (‘junctional’) specializations in their association with germ cells of the rat testis. Tissue Cell. 1977;9:475–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell LD. The perils of sperm release—‘let my children go’. Int J Androl. 1991;14:307–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell L. Role in spermiation. In: Russell LD, Griswold MD, editors. The Sertoli cell. 1st ed. Clearwater: Cache River Press; 1993. p. 269–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell L, Clermont Y. Anchoring device between Sertoli cells and late spermatids in rat seminiferous tubules. Anat Rec. 1976;185:259–78. doi:10.1002/ar.1091850302.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell LD, Ettlin RA, Sinha Hikim AP, Clegg ED. The classification and timing of spermatogenesis. In: Russell LD, editor. Histological and histopathological evaluation of the testis. 1st ed. Clearwater: Cache River Press; 1990. p. 41–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sato Y, Nozawa S, Iwamoto T. Study of spermatogenesis and thickening of lamina propria in the human seminiferous tubules. Fertil Steril. 2008;90:1310–2. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.10.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuppe H, Meinhardt A. Immune privilege and inflammation of the testis. Chem Immunol Allergy. 2005;88:1–14. doi:10.1159/000087816.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sertoli E. Dell’ esistenza di particolari cellule ramificante nei cunalicoli seminiferi del testicoli umano. Morgagni. 1865;7:31–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Setchell BB, Breed WG. Anatomy, vasculature, and innervation of the male reproductive tract. In: Knobil and Neill’s physiology of reproduction. 3rd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press; 2006. p. 771–825.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shafik A. Anatomy and function of scrotal ligament. Urology. 1977;9(6):651–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharpe RM, McKinnell C, Kivlin C, Fisher JS. Proliferation and functional maturation of Sertoli cells, and their relevance to disorders of testis function in adulthood. Reproduction. 2003;125:769–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shimizu S, Tsounapi P, Dimitriadis F, Higashi Y, Shimizu T, Saito M. Testicular torsion-detorsion and potential therapeutic treatments: a possible role for ischemic postconditioning. Int J Urol. 2016;23:454–63. doi:10.1111/iju.13110.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sigg C. Classification of tubular testicular atrophies in the diagnosis of sterility. Significance of the so-called “bunte Atrophie”. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1979;109:1284–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh I. The male reproductive organs. In: Singh I, editor. Textbook of human histology. 6th ed. New Delhi/St. Louis: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers; 2011. p. 290–303.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Singh V. Textbook of anatomy. Abdomen and lower limb. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Elsevier; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner MK, Schlitz SM, Anthony CT. Regulation of Sertoli cell differentiated function: testicular transferrin and androgen-binding protein expression. Endocrinology. 1989;124:3015–24. doi:10.1210/endo-124-6-3015.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steger K, Aleithe I, Behre H, Bergmann M. The proliferation of spermatogonia in normal and pathological human seminiferous epithelium: an immunohistochemical study using monoclonal antibodies against Ki-67 protein and proliferating cell nuclear antigen. Mol Hum Reprod. 1998;4:227–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steger K, Pauls K, Klonisch T, Franke FE, Bergmann M. Expression of protamine-1 and -2 mRNA during human spermiogenesis. Mol Hum Reprod. 2000;6:219–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Svechnikov K, Landreh L, Weisser J, Izzo G, Colón E, Svechnikova I, Söder O. Origin, development and regulation of human Leydig cells. Horm Res Paediatr. 2010;73:93–101. doi:10.1159/000277141.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tarulli GA, Stanton PG, Meachem SJ. Is the adult Sertoli cell terminally differentiated? Biol Reprod. 2012;87(1):13,1–11. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.111.095091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tu J, Fan L, Tao K, Zhu W, Li J, Lu G. Stem cell factor affects fate determination of human gonocytes in vitro. Reproduction. 2007;134:757–65. doi:10.1530/REP-07-0161.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tuck RR, Setchell BP, Waites GM, Young JA. The composition of fluid collected by micropuncture and catheterization from the seminiferous tubules and rete testis of rats. Pflugers Arch. 1970;318(3):225–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang R, Yeh S, Chen L, Lin H, Zhang C, Ni J, Wu C, Di Sant’Agnese PA, de Mesy-Bentley KL, Tzeng C, Chang C. Androgen receptor in Sertoli cell is essential for germ cell nursery and junctional complex formation in mouse testes. Endocrinology. 2006;147:5624–33. doi:10.1210/en.2006-0138.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weber JE, Russell LD. A study of intercellular bridges during spermatogenesis in the rat. Am J Anat. 1987;180:1–24. doi:10.1002/aja.1001800102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weider K, Bergmann M, Brehm R. Connexin 43: its regulatory role in testicular junction dynamics and spermatogenesis. Histol Histopathol. 2011;26:1343–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinbauer G, Luetjens C, Simoni M, Nieschlag E. Physiology of testicular function. In: Nieschlag E, Behre HM, Nieschlag S, editors. Andrology. Male reproductive health and dysfunction. 3rd ed. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2010. p. 11–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welter H, Kampfer C, Lauf S, Feil R, Schwarzer JU, Kohn F, Mayerhofer A. Partial loss of contractile marker proteins in human testicular peritubular cells in infertility patients. Andrology. 2013;1:318–24. doi:10.1111/j.2047-2927.2012.00030.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wen Q, Cheng CY, Liu Y-X. Development, function and fate of fetal Leydig cells. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2016;59:89–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Windschüttl S, Nettersheim D, Schlatt S, Huber A, Welter H, Schwarzer JU, Köhn FM, Schorle H, Mayerhofer A. Are testicular mast cells involved in the regulation of germ cells in man? Andrology. 2014;2:615–22. doi:10.1111/j.2047-2927.2014.00227.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhengwei Y, McLachlan RI, Bremner WJ, Wreford NG. Quantitative (stereological) study of the normal spermatogenesis in the adult monkey (Macaca fascicularis). J Androl. 1997;18:681–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhengwei Y, Wreford NG, Royce P, Kretser DM de, McLachlan RI. Stereological evaluation of human spermatogenesis after suppression by testosterone treatment: heterogeneous pattern of spermatogenic impairment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:1284-1291.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Veterinary Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Frankfurter Straße 98, 35392, Giessen, Germany

    D. Fietz & M. Bergmann

Authors
  1. D. Fietz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. M. Bergmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to D. Fietz .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. of Biomedicine, Metabolism and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Modena, Italy

    Manuela Simoni

  2. Dept. of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom

    Ilpo Huhtaniemi

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG

About this entry

Cite this entry

Fietz, D., Bergmann, M. (2017). Functional Anatomy and Histology of the Testis. In: Simoni, M., Huhtaniemi, I. (eds) Endocrinology of the Testis and Male Reproduction. Endocrinology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29456-8_9-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29456-8_9-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-29456-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-29456-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation