Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Handbook of the Protists pp 1523–1558Cite as

Chytridiomycota

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:

Abstract

The Chytridiomycota is a group of fungi characterized by the production of zoospores with a single posteriorly directed flagellum. The thalli of these fungi are typically microscopic and varied. The advent of molecular phylogenetics combined with analyses of zoospore ultrastructural characters has transformed our understanding of the relationship of these fungi and has revealed greater genetic diversity than expected. What was once the single order Chytridiales is now ten monophyletic orders. Rozella, Olpidium, and the Blastocladiomycota, organisms once thought to be within the Chytridiomycota, diverge in separate lineages and are no longer included in the Chytridiomycota. The Neocallimastigomycota are sister to Chytridiomycota, but they are distinct in their zoospore ultrastructure, behavior of nuclear envelope during mitosis, and specific adaptation as anaerobes to digestive systems of herbivores. Molecular characterization of environmental samples demonstrates that zoosporic fungi are widespread and can survive in a range of habitats, from oceans to freshwater and even harsh environments including under artic snow or in exposed soils in alpine regions. The importance of these organisms as parasites, saprotrophs of refractory materials, and components in food webs is discussed. Ways to collect, culture, and characterize these organisms are highlighted. Current classification based on molecular and ultrastructural analyses is described.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   999.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD   1,099.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Barr, D. J. S. (1978). Taxonomy and phylogeny of chytrids. BioSystems, 10, 153–165.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S. (1980). An outline for the reclassification of the Chytridiales, and for a new order, the Spizellomycetales. Canadian Journal of Botany, 58, 2380–2394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S. (1981a). The phylogenetic and taxonomic implications of flagellar rootlet morphology among zoosporic fungi. BioSystems, 14, 359–370.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S. (1981b). Ultrastructure of the Gaertneriomyces zoospore (Spizellomycetales, Chytridiomycetes). Canadian Journal of Botany, 59, 83–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S. (1983). The zoosporic grouping of plant pathogens, entity or non-entity? In S. T. Buczacki (Ed.), Zoosporic plant pathogens, a modern perspective (pp. 43–83). London: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S. (1984a). Cytological variation in zoospores of Spizellomyces (Chytridiomycetes). Canadian Journal of Botany, 62, 1202–1208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S. (1984b). The classification of Spizellomyces, Gaertneriomyces, Triparticalcar, and Kochiomyces (Spizellomycetales, Chytridiomycetes). Canadian Journal of Botany, 62, 1171–1201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S. (1986). Allochytridium expandens rediscovered: Morphology, physiology and zoospore ultrastructure. Mycologia, 78, 439–448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S. (1987). Isolation, culture, and identification of Chytridiales, Spizellomycetales, and Hyphochytriales. In M. S. Fuller & A. Jaworski (Eds.), Zoosporic fungi in teaching and research (pp. 118–120). Athens: Southeastern Publishing Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S. (1990). Phylum Chytridiomycota. In L. Margulis, J. O. Corliss, M. Melkonian, & D. J. Chapman (Eds.), Handbook of protoctista (pp. 454–466). Boston: Jones and Bartlett.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S. (2001). Chytridiomycota. In D. J. McLaughlin, E. G. McLaughlin, & P. A. Lemke (Eds.), The Mycota (Vol. 7A, pp. 93–112). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., & Allan, P. M. E. (1981). Ultrastructure of Kochiomyces and Triparticalcar zoospores (Spizellomycetales, Chytridiomycetes). Canadian Journal of Botany, 59, 649–661.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., & Babcock, C. E. (1994). Cryopreservation of unicellular, zoosporic fungi, a simple method. US Federation of Culture Collection Newsletter, 24, 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., & Désaulniers, N. L. (1986). Four zoospore subtypes in the Rhizophlyctis-Karlingia complex (Chytriomycetes). Canadian Journal of Botany, 64, 561–572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., & Désaulniers, N. L. (1987). Allochytridium luteum n.sp.: Morphology, physiology and zoospore ultrastructure. Mycologia, 79, 193–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., & Désaulniers, N. L. (1988). Precise configuration of the chytrid zoospore. Canadian Journal of Botany, 66, 869–876.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., & Hadland-Hartmann, V. E. (1977). Zoospore ultrastructure of Olpidium cucurbitacearum (Chytridiales). Canadian Journal of Botany, 55, 3063–3074.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., & Hadland-Hartmann, V. E. (1978a). The flagellar apparatus in the Chytridiales. Canadian Journal of Botany, 56, 887–900.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., & Hadland-Hartmann, V. E. (1978b). Zoospore ultrastructure in the genus Rhizophydium (Chytridiales). Canadian Journal of Botany, 56, 2380–2404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., & Hartmann, V. E. (1976). Zoospore ultrastructure of three Chytridium species and Rhizoclosmatium globosum. Canadian Journal of Botany, 54, 2000–2013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., & Hartmann, V. E. (1977). Zoospore ultrastructure of Olpidium brassicae and Rhizophlyctis rosea. Canadian Journal of Botany, 55, 1221–1235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D. J. S., Désaulniers, N. L., & Knox, J. S. (1987). Catenochytridium hemicysti n.sp.: Morphology, physiology and zoospore ultrastructure. Mycologia, 79, 587–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beakes, G. W., Canter, H. M., & Jaworski, G. H. M. (1988). Zoospore ultrastructure of Zygorhizidium affluens and Z. planktonicum, two chytrids parasitizing the diatom Asterionella formosa. Canadian Journal of Botany, 66, 1054–1067.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beakes, G. W., Canter, H. M., & Jaworski, G. H. M. (1993). Sporangium differentiation and zoospore fine-structure of the chytrid Rhizophydium planktonicum, a fungal parasite of Asterionella formosa. Mycological Research, 97, 1059–1074.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berbee, M. L., & Taylor, J. W. (2007). Rhynie chert: A window into a lost world of complex plant-fungus interactions. New Phytologist, 174, 475–479.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bills, G. F., Christensen, M., Powell, M., & Thorn, G. (2004). Saprobic soil fungi. In G. M. Mueller, G. F. Bills, & M. S. Foster (Eds.), Biodiversity of fungi: Inventory and monitoring methods (pp. 271–302). Oxford: Elsevier.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, W. H., & Powell, M. J. (1991). A nomenclatural synopsis of Septosperma (Chytridiomycetes) and emendation of S. rhizophydii. Mycotaxon, 62, 43–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, W. H., & Powell, M. J. (1998). Nomenclatural validation of Solutoparies (Chytridiomycetes). Mycotaxon, 67, 463–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, W. H., Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2002). The question of the separation of Diplochytridium from Chytridium sensu lato. Mycotaxon, 83, 183–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, W. H., Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2004). Synopsis and systematic reconsideration of Karlingiomyces (Chytridiomycota). Mycotaxon, 89, 259–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, W. H., Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2006). Thallus development and the systematics of Chytridiomycota: An additional developmental pattern represented by Podochytrium. Mycotaxon, 97, 91–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, W. H., Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2012). Synopsis of Obelidium (Chytridiomycota). Phytologia, 94, 103–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Booth, T. (1971). Distribution of certain soil inhabiting chytrid and chytridiaceous species related to some physical and chemical factors. Canadian Journal of Botany, 49, 1743–1755.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyle, D. G., Hyatt, A. D., Daszak, P., Berger, L., Longcore, J. E., Porter, D., Hengstberger, S. G., & Olsen, V. (2003). Cryo-archiving of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and other Chytridiomycetes. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 5, 59–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callaghan, T. M., Podmirseg, S. M., Hohlweck, D., Edwards, J. E., Puniya, A. K., Dagar, S. S., & Griffith, G. W. (2015). Buwchfawromyces eastonii gen. nov., sp. nov.: A new anaerobic fungus (Neocallimastigomycota) isolated from buffalo faeces. MycoKeys, 9, 11–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canter, H. M., & Jaworski, G. H. M. (1981). The effect of light and darkness upon infection of Asterionella formosa Hassall by the chytrid Rhizophydium planktonicum Canter emend. Annals of Botany, 47, 13–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y. C., Tsai, S. D., Cheng, H. L., Chien, C. Y., Hu, C. Y., & Cheng, T. Y. (2007). Caecomyces sympodialis sp. nov., a new rumen fungus isolated from Bos indicus. Mycologia, 99, 125–130.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cornu, M. (1871). Note sur deux genres nouveaux de la famille des Saprolégniées. Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France, 18, 58–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dagar, S. S., Kumar, S., Griffith, G. W., Edwards, J. E., Callaghan, T. M., Singh, R., Nagpal, A. K., & Puniya, A. K. (2015). A new anaerobic fungus (Oontomyces anksri gen. nov., sp. nov.) from the digestive tract of the Indian camel (Camelus dromedarius). Fungal Biology, 119, 731–737.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daszak, P., Strieby, A., Cunningham, A. A., Longcore, J. E., Brown, C. C., & Porter, D. (2004). Experimental evidence that the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) is a potential carrier of chytridiomycosis, an emerging fungal disease of amphibians. Herpetological Journal, 14, 201–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, W. J., Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2013). Chytrid diversity of Tuscaloosa County, Alabama. Southeastern Naturalist, 12, 666–683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, W. J., Letcher, P. M., Longcore, J. E., & Powell, M. J. (2015). Fayochytriomyces is a new genus within Chytridiales. Mycologia, 107, 432–439.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, W. J., Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2016a). Borealophlyctis nickersoniae, a new species in Rhizophlyctidales. Mycologia, 108, 744–752.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, W. J., Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2016b). Triparticalcar equi is a new coprophilous species within Spizellomycetales, Chytridiomycota. Phytologia, 98, 241–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dee, J., Mollicone, M., Longcore, J. E., Roberson, R., & Berbee, M. (2015). Cytology and molecular phylogenetics of Monoblepharidiomycetes provide evidence for multiple independent origins of the hyphal habit in the Fungi. Mycologia, 107, 710–728.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doggett, M. S., & Porter, D. (1996). Sexual reproduction in the fungal parasite, Zygorhizidium planktonicum. Mycologia, 88, 720–732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolan, T. E., & Fuller, M. S. (1985). The ultrastructure of nuclear division in Monoblepharella sp. Mycologia, 77, 791–809.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dorward, D. W., & Powell, M. J. (1980). Microbodies in Monoblepharella sp. Mycologia, 72, 549–557.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dorward, D. W., & Powell, M. J. (1982). Cross-linking bridges associated with the microbody-lipid globule complex in Chytriomyces aureus and Chytriomyces hyalinus. Protoplasma, 112, 181–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dorward, D. W., & Powell, M. J. (1983). Cytochemical detection of polysaccharides and the ultrastructure of the cell coat of zoospores of Chytriomyces aureus and Chytriomyces hyalinus. Mycologia, 75, 209–220.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doweld, A. (2001). Prosyllabus tracheophytorum: Tentamen systematis plantarum vascularium (Tracheophyta). Moscow: Geos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duy, G., Smith, R. L., Collins, S. C., & Connell, L. B. (2015). Rapid colorimetric detection of the fungal phytopathogen Synchytrium endobioticum using cyanine dye-indicated PNA hybridization. American Journal of Potato Research, 92, 398–409.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, R., & Natvig, D. O. (1981). Adaptation of fungi to stagnant waters. In D. T. Wicklow & G. C. Carroll (Eds.), The fungal community, its organization and role in the ecosystem (pp. 109–128). New York: Marcel Dekker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, R., & Whisler, H. C. (1968). Cultural studies of Oedogoniomyces and Harpochytrium, and a proposal to place them in a new order of aquatic Phycomycetes. Archiv für Mikrobiologie, 61, 195–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farrer, R. A., Weinert, L. A., Bielby, J., Garner, T. W. J., Balloux, F., Clare, F., Bosch, J., Cunningham, A. A., Weldon, C., du Preez, L. H., Anderson, L., Pond, S. L. K., Shahar-Golan, R., Henk, D. A., & Fisher, M. C. (2011). Multiple emergences of genetically diverse amphibian infecting chytrids include a globalized hypervirulent recombinant lineage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A, 108, 18732–18736.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, M. C., & Garner, T. W. J. (2007). The relationship between the emergence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the international trade in amphibians and introduced amphibian species. Fungal Biology Reviews, 21, 2–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick, H. M. (1930). The lower fungi, Phycomycetes. New York/London: McGraw-Hill Book.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Forget, L., Ustinova, J., Wang, Z., Huss, V. A. R., & Lang, B. F. (2002). Hyaloraphidium curvatum: A linear mitochondrial genome, tRNA editing, and an evolutionary link to lower fungi. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 19, 310–319.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, K. R., Martin, A. P., Karki, D., Lynch, R. C., Mitter, M. S., Meyer, A. F., Longcore, J. E., Simmons, D. R., & Schmidt, S. K. (2009). Evidence that chytrids dominate fungal communities in high-elevation soils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A, 106, 18315–18320.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, M. S., & Jaworski, A. (1987). Zoosporic fungi in teaching and research. Athens: Southeastern Publishing Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, M. S., & Reichle, R. E. (1968). The fine structure of Monoblepharella sp. zoospores. Canadian Journal of Botany, 46, 279–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Vallvé, S., Romeu, A., & Palau, J. (2000). Horizontal gene transfer of glycosyl hydrolases of the rumen fungi. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 17, 352–361.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gauriloff, L. P., Delay, R. J., & Fuller, M. S. (1980a). Comparative ultrastructure and biochemistry of chytridiomycetous fungi and the future of the Harpochytriales. Canadian Journal of Botany, 58, 2098–2109.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gauriloff, L. P., Delay, R. J., & Fuller, M. S. (1980b). The fine structure of zoospores of Harpochytrium hedinii. Canadian Journal of Botany, 58, 2090–2097.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gleason, F. H. (1976). The physiology of the lower freshwater fungi. In E. B. G. Jones (Ed.), Recent advances in aquatic mycology (pp. 543–572). London: Paul Elek Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleason, F. H., Letcher, P. M., & McGee, P. A. (2004). Some Chytridiomycota in soil recover from drying and high temperatures. Mycological Research, 108, 583–589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gleason, F. H., Letcher, P. M., Commandeur, Z., Jeong, C. E., & McGee, P. A. (2005). The growth response of some Chytridiomycota to temperatures commonly observed in the soil. Mycological Research, 109, 717–722.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gleason, F. H., Kagami, M., Lefèvre, E., & Sime-Ngando, T. (2008). The ecology of chytrids in aquatic ecosystems: Roles in food web dynamics. Fungal Biology Review, 22, 17–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gold, J. J., Heath, I. B., & Bauchop, T. (1988). Ultrastructural description of a new chytrid genus of caecum anaerobe, Caecomyces equi gen. nov., sp. nov., assigned to the Neocallimasticaceae. BioSystems, 21, 403–415.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gruninger, R. J., Puniya, A. K., Callaghan, T. M., Edward, J. E., Youssef, N., Dagar, S. S., Fliegerova, K., Griffith, G. W., Forster, R., Tsang, A., McAllister, T., & Elshahed, M. S. (2014). Anaerobic fungi (phylum Neocallimastigomycota): Advances in understanding their taxonomy, life cycle, ecology, role and biotechnological potential. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 90, 1–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hassett, B. T., & Gradinger, R. (2016). Chytrids dominate arctic marine fungal communities. Environmental Microbiology, 18, 2001–2009.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, I. B., Bauchop, T., & Skipp, R. A. (1983). Assignment of the rumen anaerobe Neocallimastix frontalis to the Spizellomycetales (Chytridiomycetes) on the basis of its polyflagellate zoospore ultrastructure. Canadian Journal of Botany, 61, 295–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Held, A. A. (1975). The zoospore of Rozella allomycis: Ultrastructure. Canadian Journal of Botany, 53, 2212–2232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Held, A. A. (1981). Rozella and Rozellopsis: Naked endoparasitic fungi which dress-up as their hosts. The Botanical Review, 47, 451–515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hibbett, D. S., Binder, M., Bischoff, J., Blackwell, M., Cannon, P., Eriksson, O., Huhndorf, S., James, T., Kirk, P., Lucking, R., Lumbsch, H., Lutzoni, F., Matheny, P., McLaughlin, D., Powell, M., Redhead, S., Schoch, C., Spatafora, J., Stalpers, J., Vilgalys, R., et al. (2007). A higher level phylogenetic classification of the fungi. Mycological Research, 111, 509–547.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, Y. W., & Barr, D. J. S. (1995). Classification of anaerobic gut fungi from herbivores with emphasis on rumen fungi from Malaysia. Mycologia, 87, 655–677.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ibelings, B. W., DeBruin, A., Kagami, M., Rijkeboer, M., Brehm, M., & Van Donk, E. (2004). Host parasite interactions between freshwater phytoplankton and chytrid fungi (Chytridiomycota). Journal of Phycology, 40, 437–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, T. Y., Kauff, F., Schoch, C. L., Matheny, P. B., Hofstetter, V., Cox, C. J., Celio, G., Gueidan, C., Fraker, E., Miadlikowska, J., Lumbsh, H. T., Rauhut, A., Reeb, V., Arnold, A. E., Amtoft, A., Stajich, J. E., Hosaka, K., Sung, G.-H., Johnson, D., O’Rourke, B., Crockett, M., Binder, M., Curtis, J. M., Slot, J. C., Wang, Z., Wilson, A. W., Schüßler, A., Longcore, J. E., O’Donnell, K., Mozley-Standridge, S., Porter, D., Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., Taylor, J. W., White, M. M., Griffith, G. W., Davies, D. R., Humber, R. A., Morton, J. B., Sugiyama, J., Rossman, A. Y., Rogers, J. D., Pfister, D. H., Hewitt, D., Hansen, K., Hambleton, S., Shoemaker, R. A., Kohlmeyer, J., Volkmann-Kohlmeyer, B., Spotts, R. A., Serdani, M., Crous, P. W., Hughes, K. W., Matsuura, K., Langer, E., Langer, G., Untereiner, W. A., Lücking, R., Büdel, B., Geiser, D. M., Aptroot, A., Diederich, P., Schmitt, I., Schultz, M., Yahr, R., Hibbett, D. S., Lutzoni, F., McLaughlin, D. J., Spatafora, J. W., & Vilgalys, R. (2006a). Reconstructing the early evolution of the fungi using a six-gene phylogeny. Nature, 443, 818–822.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • James, T. Y., Letcher, P. M., Longcore, J. E., Mozley-Standridge, S. E., Porter, D., Powell, M. J., Griffith, G. W., & Vilgalys, R. (2006b). A molecular phylogeny of the flagellated fungi (Chytridiomycota) and description of a new phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia, 98, 860–871.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, T. W. (1966). A Rhizophydium and its hyperparasite on Polysiphonia. American Journal of Botany, 53, 945–950.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, M. D. M., Richard, T. A., Hawksworth, D. J., & Bass, D. (2011). Validation of the phylum name Cryptomycota phyl. nov. with notes on its recognition. IMA Fungus, 2, 173–175.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kagami, M., De Bruin, A., Ibelings, B. W., & Van Donk, E. (2007). Parasitic chytrids: Their effects on phytoplankton communities and food-web-dynamics. Hydrobiologia, 578, 113–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kagami, M., Helmsing, N. R., & van Donk, E. (2011). Parasitic chytrids could promote copepod survival by mediating material transfer from inedible diatoms. Hydrobiologia, 569, 49–54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kagami, M., Amano, Y., & Ishii, N. (2012). Community structure of planktonic fungi and the impact of parasitic chytrids on phytoplankton in Lake Inba, Japan. Microbial Ecology, 63, 358–368.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kagami, M., Miki, T., & Takimoto, G. (2014). Mycoloop: Chytrids in aquatic food webs. Frontiers in Microbiology, 5, 166.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Karling, J. S. (1945). Brazilian chytrids. VII. Observations relative to sexuality in two new species of Siphonaria. American Journal of Botany, 32, 580–587.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karling, J. S. (1964). Synchytrium. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karling, J. S. (1977). Chytridiomycetarum iconographia. Monticello/New York: Lubrecht and Cramer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karpov, S. A., Letcher, P. M., Mamkaeva, M. A., & Mamkaeva, K. A. (2010). Phylogenetic position of the genus Mesochytrium (Chytridiomycota) based on zoospore ultrastructure and sequences from the 18S and 28S rRNA gene. Nova Hedwigia, 90, 81–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karpov, S. A., Mikhailov, K. V., Mirzaeva, G. S., Mirabdullaev, I. M., Mamkaeva, K. A., Titova, N. N., & Aleoshin, V. V. (2013). Obligately phagotrophic aphelids turned out to branch with the earliest-diverging fungi. Protist, 164, 195–205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karpov, S. A., Kobserva, A. A., Mamkaeva, M. A., Mamkaeva, K. A., Mikhailov, K. V., Mirzaeva, G. S., & Aleoshin, V. V. (2014a). Gromochytrium mamkaevae gen. & sp. nov. and two new orders: Gromochytriales and Mesochytriales (Chytridiomycetes). Persoonia, 32, 115–126.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Karpov, S. A., Mamkaeva, M. A., Aleoshin, V. V., Nassonova, E., Lilje, O., & Gleason, F. H. (2014b). Morphology, phylogeny, and ecology of the aphelids (Aphelidea, Opisthokonta) and proposal for the new superphylum Opisthosporidia. Frontiers in Microbiology, 5, 112.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kazama, F. (1972). Ultrastructure and phototaxis of the zoospores of Phlyctochytrium sp., an estuarine chytrid. Journal of General Microbiology, 71, 555–566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kittelmann, S., Naylor, G. E., Koolaard, J. P., & Janssen, P. H. (2012). A proposed taxonomy of anaerobic fungi (Class Neocallimastigomycetes) suitable for large-scale sequence-based community structure analysis. PLoS ONE, 7(5), e36866. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036866.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Koch, W. J. (1961). Studies of the motile cells of chytrids. III. Major types. American Journal of Botany, 48, 786–788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koch, W. J. (1968). Studies of the motile cells of chytrids. V. Flagellar retraction in posteriorly uniflagellate fungi. American Journal of Botany, 55, 841–859.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lange, L., & Olson, L. W. (1978a). The zoospore of Olpidium radicale. Transactions of the British Mycological Society, 71, 43–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lange, L., & Olson, L. W. (1978b). The zoospore of Synchytrium endobioticum. Canadian Journal of Botany, 56, 1229–1239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lange, L., & Olson, L. W. (1979). The uniflagellate Phycomycete zoospore. Dansk Botanisk Arkiv, 33, 7–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lange, L., & Olson, L. W. (1983). Some methods for studying zoosporic plant pathogenic fungi. In S. T. Buczacki (Ed.), Zoosporic plant pathogens, a modern perspective (pp. 287–292). London: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lefèvre, E., Bardot, C., Noel, C., Carrias, J., Viscogliosi, E., Amblard, C., & Sime-Ngando, T. (2007). Unveiling fungal zooflagellates as members of freshwater picoeukaryotes: Evidence from a molecular diversity study in a deep meromictic lake. Environmental Microbiology, 9, 61–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lefèvre, E., Roussel, B., Amblard, C., & Sime-Ngando, T. (2008). The molecular diversity of freshwater picoeukaryotes reveals high occurrence of putative parasitoids in the plankton. PLoS ONE, 3, e2324. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002324.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lefèvre, E., Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2012). Temporal variation of the small eukaryotic community in two freshwater lakes: Emphasis on the zoosporic fungal community. Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 67, 91–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lepelletier, F., Karpov, S. A., Alacid, E., LePanse, S., Bigeard, E., Garces, E., Jeanthon, C., & Guillou, L. (2014). Dinomyces arenysensis gen. et sp. nov. (Rhizophydiales, Dinomycetaceae fam. nov.), a chytrid infecting marine dinoflagellates. Protist, 165, 230–244.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leshem, T., Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., & Sukenik, A. (2016). Characterization of a new chytrid species parasitic on the dinoflagellate, Peridinium gatunense. Mycologia, 108, 731–743.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2001). Distribution of zoosporic fungi in forest soils of the Blue Ridge and Appalachian Mountains of Virginia. Mycologia, 93, 1029–1041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2002a). A taxonomic summary of Chytriomyces (Chytridiomycota). Mycotaxon, 84, 447–487.

    Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2002b). Frequency and distribution patterns of zoosporic fungi from moss-covered and exposed forest soils. Mycologia, 94, 761–771.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2005a). Kappamyces, a new genus in the Chytridiales (Chytridiomycota). Nova Hedwigia, 80, 115–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2005b). Phylogenetic position of Phlyctochytrium planicorne (Chytridiales, Chytridiomycota) based on zoospore ultrastructure and partial nuclear LSU rRNA gene sequence analysis. Nova Hedwigia, 80, 134–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2012). A taxonomic summary and revision of Rhizophydium (Rhizophydiales, Chytridiomycota). Tuscaloosa: University Printing, The University of Alabama. 216 pgs. ISBN 978-0-615-66279-4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2014). Hypothesized evolutionary trends in zoospore ultrastructural characters in Chytridiales. Mycologia, 106, 379–396.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., McGee, P. A., & Powell, M. J. (2004a). Distribution and diversity of chytrids from soils of four vegetation types in New South Wales Australia. Canadian Journal of Botany, 82, 1490–1500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., Chambers, J. G., & Holznagel, W. E. (2004b). Phylogenetic relationships among Rhizophydium isolates from North America and Australia. Mycologia, 96, 1339–1351.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., Chambers, J. G., Longcore, J. E., Churchill, P. F., & Harris, P. M. (2005). Ultrastructural and molecular analysis of the Chytridiaceae (Chytridiales). Canadian Journal of Botany, 83, 1561–1573.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., Churchill, P. F., & Chambers, J. G. (2006). Ultrastructural and molecular phylogenetic delineation of a new order, the Rhizophydiales (Chytridiomycota). Mycological Research, 110, 898–915.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., Barr, D. J. S., Churchill, P. F., Wakefield, W. S., & Picard, K. T. (2008a). Rhizophlyctidales is a new order in Chytridiomycota. Mycological Research, 112, 1031–1048.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., & Viusent, M. C. (2008b). Rediscovery of an unusual chytridiaceous fungus new to the order Rhizophydiales. Mycologia, 100, 325–334.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Velez, C. G., Barrantes, M. E., Powell, M. J., Churchill, P. F., & Wakefield, W. S. (2008c). Ultrastructural and molecular analyses of Rhizophydiales (Chytridiomycota) isolates from North America and Argentina. Mycological Research, 112, 759–782.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., & Picard, K. T. (2012a). Zoospore ultrastructure and phylogenetic position of Phlyctochytrium aureliae Ajello is revealed (Chytridiaceae, Chytridiales, Chytridiomycota). Mycologia, 104, 410–418.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Vélez, C. G., Schultz, S., & Powell, M. J. (2012b). New taxa are delineated in Alphamycetaceae (Rhizophydiales, Chytridiomycota). Nova Hedwigia, 94, 9–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Lopez, S., Schmieder, R., Lee, P. A., Behnke, C., Powell, M. J., & McBride, R. C. (2013). Characterization of Amoeboaphelidium protococcarum, an algal parasite new to the Cryptomycota isolated from an outdoor algae pond used for the production of biofuel. PLoS ONE, 8(2), e56232. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056232.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Longcore, J. E., & Powell, M. J. (2014a). Dendrochytridium crassum, a new genus in Chytridiales with unique zoospore ultrastructure. Mycologia, 106, 145–153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Longcore, J. E., & Powell, M. J. (2014b). Irineochytrium, a new genus in Chytridiales having zoospores and aplanospores. Mycologia, 106, 1188–1198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., & Davis, W. J. (2015a). A new family and four new genera in Rhizophydiales (Chytridiomycota). Mycologia, 107, 808–830.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., Lopez, S., Lee, P. A., & McBride, R. C. (2015b). Amoeboaphelidium protococcarum, and Amoeboaphelidium occidentale, a new species in phylum Aphelida (Opisthosporidia). Mycologia, 107, 522–531.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Heath, I. B., & Cheng, K.–. J. (1991). The development and zoospore ultrastructure of a polycentric chytridiomycete gut fungus, Orphinomyces joyonii comb. nov. Canadian Journal of Botany, 69, 580–589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Heath, I. B., & Packer, L. (1993). The phylogenetic relationships of the anaerobic chytriomycetous gut fungi (Neocallimasticaeae) and the Chytridiomycota. II. Cladistic analysis of structural data and description of Neocallimasticales ord. nov. Canadian Journal of Botany, 71, 393–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liggenstoffer, A. S., Youssef, N. H., Couger, M. B., & Elshahed, M. S. (2010). Phylogenetic diversity and community structure of anaerobic gut fungi (phylum Neocallimastigomycota) in ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores. ISME Journal, 4, 1225–1235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lockhart, R. J., Van Dyke, M. I., Beadle, I. R., Humphreys, P., & McCarthy, A. J. (2006). Molecular biological detection of anaerobic gut fungi (Neocallimastigales) from landfill sites. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72, 5659–5661.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E. (1992a). Morphology and zoospore ultrastructure of Chytriomyces angularis sp. nov. (Chytridiales). Mycologia, 84, 442–451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E. (1992b). Morphology, occurrence, and zoospore ultrastructure of Podochytrium dentatum sp. nov. (Chytridiales). Mycologia, 84, 183–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E. (1993). Morphology and zoospore ultrastructure of Lacustromyces hiemalis gen. et sp. nov. (Chytridiales). Canadian Journal of Botany, 71, 414–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E. (1995). Morphology and zoospore ultrastructure of Entophlyctis luteolus sp. nov. (Chytridiales): Implications for chytrid taxonomy. Mycologia, 87, 25–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E. (1996). Chytridiomycete taxonomy since 1960. Mycotaxon, 60, 149–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E. (2004). Rhizophydium brooksianum sp. nov., a multipored chytrid from soil. Mycologia, 96, 162–171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E. (2005). Zoosporic fungi from Australian and New Zealand tree-canopy detritus. Australian Journal of Botany, 53, 259–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E., & Simmons, D. R. (2012). The Polychytriales ord. nov. contains chitinophilic members of the rhizophlyctoid alliance. Mycologia, 104, 276–294.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E., Barr, D. J. S., & Désaulniers, N. (1995). Powellomyces, a new genus in the Spizellomycetales. Canadian Journal of Botany, 73, 1385–1390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E., Pessier, A. P., & Nichols, D. K. (1999). Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis gen. et sp. nov., a chytrid pathogenic to amphibians. Mycologia, 91, 219–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. R., Longcore, J. E., Pessier, A. P., & Halteman, W. A. (2007). Chytridiomycosis widespread in anurans of northeastern United States. Journal of Wildlife Management, 71, 435–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E., Letcher, P. M., & James, T. Y. (2011). Homolaphlyctis polyrhiza gen et sp. nov., a species in the Rhizophydiales (Chytridiomycetes) with multiple rhizoidal axes. Mycotaxon, 118, 433–440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longcore, J. E., Simmons, D. R., & Letcher, P. M. (2016). Synchytrium microbalum sp. nov. is a saprobic species in a lineage of parasites. Fungal Biology, 120, 1156–1164.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lozupone, C. A., & Klein, D. A. (2002). Molecular and cultural assessment of chytrid and Spizellomyces populations in grassland soils. Mycologia, 94, 411–420.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lucarotti, C. J. (1981). Zoospore ultrastructure of Nowakowskiella elegans and Cladochytrium replicatum (Chytridiales). Canadian Journal of Botany, 59, 137–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marek, L. E. (1984). Light affects in vitro development of gametangia and sporangia of Monoblepharis macrandra (Chytridiomycetes, Monoblepharidales). Mycologia, 76, 420–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martel, A., Blooi, M., Adriaensen, C., Van Rooij, P., Beukema, W., Fischer, M. C., et al. (2014). Recent introduction of a chytrid fungus endangers western Palearctic salamanders. Science, 346, 630–631.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNitt, R. (1973). Mitosis in Phlyctochytrium irregulare. Canadian Journal of Botany, 51, 2065–2074.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNitt, R. (1974). Zoosporogenesis in Phlyctochytrium irregulare. Cytobiologie, 9, 290–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Midgley, D. J., Letcher, P. M., & McGee, P. A. (2006). Access to organic and insoluble sources of phosphorus varies among soil Chytridiomycota. Archives of Microbiology, 186, 211–217.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Millay, M. A., & Taylor, T. N. (1978). Chytrid-like fossils of Pennsylvanian age. Science, 200, 1147–1149.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, C. E., & Dylewski, D. P. (1981). Syngamy and resting body development in Chytriomyces hyalinus (Chytridiales). American Journal of Botany, 68, 342–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mollicone, M. R. N., & Longcore, J. E. (1994). Zoospore ultrastructure of Monoblepharis polymorpha. Mycologia, 86, 615–625.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mollicone, M. R. N., & Longcore, J. E. (1999). Zoospore ultrastructure of Gonapodya polymorpha. Mycologia, 91, 727–734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montecillo, C. M., Bracker, C. E., & Powell, M. J. (1980). Ultrastructure of Synchytrium macrosporum zoospores. Canadian Journal of Botany, 58, 1885–1897.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morehouse, E. A., James, T. Y., Ganley, A. R., Vilgalys, R., Berger, L., Murphy, P. J., & Longcore, J. E. (2003). Multilocus sequence typing suggests the chytrid pathogen of amphibians is a recently emerged clone. Molecular Ecology, 12, 395–403.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, J. A. T., Vredenburg, V. T., Rachowicz, L. J., Knapp, R. A., Stice, M. J., Tunstall, T., Bingham, R. E., Parker, J. M., Longcore, J. E., Moritz, C., Briggs, C. J., & Taylor, J. W. (2007). Population genetics of the frog-killing fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A, 104, 13845–13850.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moss, A. S., Reddy, N. S., Dortaj, I. M., & San Francisco, M. J. (2008). Chemotaxis of the amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium denderobatidis and its response to a variety of attractants. Mycologia, 100, 1–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mountfort, D. O., & Orpin, C. G. (1994). Anaerobic fungi: Biology, ecology, and function. New York: Marcel Dekker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mozley-Standridge, S. E., Letcher, P. M., Longcore, J. E., Porter, D., & Simmons, D. R. (2009). Cladochytriales – A new order in Chytridiomycota. Mycological Research, 113, 498–507.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muehlstein, L. K., Amon, J. P., & Leffler, D. L. (1988). Chemotaxis in the marine fungus Rhizophydium littoreum. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 54, 1668–1672.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Müller, D. G., Küpper, F. C., & Küpper, H. (1999). Infection experiments reveal broad host range of Eurychasma dicksonii (Oomycota) and Chytridium polysiphoniae (Chytridiomycota), two eukaryotic parasites in marine brown algae (Phaeophyceae). Phycological Research, 47, 217–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagahama, T., Takahashi, E., Nagano, Y., Abdel-Wahab, M. A., & Miyazaki, M. (2011). Molecular evidence that deep-branching fungi are major components in deep-sea methane cold-seep sediments. Environmental Microbiology, 13, 2359–2370.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nyvall, P., Pedersén, M., & Longcore, J. E. (1999). Thalassochytrium gracilariopsidis (Chytridiomycota), gen. et sp. nov., endosymbiotic in Gracilariopsis sp. (Rhodophyceae). Journal of Phycology, 35, 176–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orpin, C. G. (1975). Studies on the rumen flagellate Neocallimastix frontalis. Journal of General Microbiology, 91, 249–262.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orpin, C. G., & Bountiff, L. (1978). Zoospore chemotaxis in the rumen phycomycete Neocallimastix frontalis. Journal of General Microbiology, 104, 113–122.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orpin, C. G., & Letcher, A. J. (1979). Utilization of cellulose, starch, xylan and other hemicelluloses for growth by the rumen phycomycete Neocallimastix frontalis. Current Microbiology, 3, 121–124.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ozkose, E., Thomas, B. J., Davies, D. R., Griffith, G. W., & Theodorou, M. K. (2001). Cyllamyces aberensis gen. nov. sp. nov., a new anaerobic gut fungus with branched sporangiophores isolated from cattle. Canadian Journal of Botany, 79, 666–673.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, M. G., Yih, W., & Coats, D. W. (2004). Parasites and phytoplankton, with special emphasis on dinoflagellate infections. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 51, 145–155.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Picard, K. T., Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2009). Rhizidium phycophilum, a new species in the Chytridales. Mycologia, 101, 696–706.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Picard, K. P., Letcher, P. M., & Powell, M. J. (2013). Evidence for a facultative mutualist nutritional relationship between the green coccoid alga Bracteacoccus sp. (Chlorophyceae) and the zoosporic fungus Rhizidium phycophilum (Chytridiomycota). Fungal Biology, 117, 319–328.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piotrowski, J. S., Annis, S. L., & Longcore, J. E. (2004). Physiology of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a chytrid pathogen of amphibians. Mycologia, 96, 9–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1974). Fine structure of plasmodesmata in a chytrid. Mycologia, 66, 606–614.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1975). Ultrastructural changes in nuclear membranes and organelle associations during mitosis of the aquatic fungus Entophlyctis sp. Canadian Journal of Botany, 53, 627–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1976a). Development of the discharge apparatus in the fungus Entophlyctis. Archives of Microbiology, 111, 59–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1976b). Ultrastructure and isolation of glyoxysomes (microbodies) in zoospores of the fungus Entophlyctis. Protoplasma, 89, 1–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1978). Phylogenetic implications of the microbody-lipid globule complex in zoosporic fungi. BioSystems, 10, 167–180.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1980). Mitosis in the aquatic fungus Rhizophydium sphaerotheca (Chytridiales). American Journal of Botany, 67, 839–853.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1981a). Ultrastructure of Polyphagus euglenae zoospores. Canadian Journal of Botany, 59, 2049–2061.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1981b). Zoospore structure of the mycoparastic chytrid Caulochytrium protostelioides Olive. American Journal of Botany, 68, 1074–1089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1983). Localization of antimonate-mediated precipitates of cations in zoospores of Chytriomyces hyalinus. Experimental Mycology, 7, 266–277.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1984). Fine structure of the unwalled thallus of Rozella polyphagi in its host Polyphagus euglenae. Mycologia, 76, 1039–1048.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1993). Looking at mycology with a Janus face. A glimpse at Chytridiomycetes active in the environment. Mycologia, 85, 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J. (1994). Production and modifications of extracellular structures during development of Chytridiomycetes. Protoplasma, 181, 123–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., & Blackwell, W. H. (1991). A proposed dispersal mechanism for Septosperma rhizophydii. Mycologia, 83, 673–680.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., & Gillette, L. (1987). Septal structure of the chytrid Rhizophlyctis harderi. Mycologia, 79, 635–639.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., & Koch, W. J. (1977a). Morphological variations in a new species of Entophlyctis. I. The species concept. Canadian Journal of Botany, 55, 1668–1685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., & Koch, W. J. (1977b). Morphological variations in a new species of Entophlyctis. II. Influence of growth conditions on morphology. Canadian Journal of Botany, 55, 1686–1695.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., & Letcher, P. M. (2012). From zoospores to molecules: The evolution and systematics of Chytridiomycota. In J. K. Misra, J. P. Tewari, & S. K. Deshmukh (Eds.), Systematics and evolution of fungi (pp. 29–54). Boca Raton: CRC Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., & Letcher, P. M. (2014a). Chytridiomycota, Monoblepharidomycota, and Neocallimastigomycota. In D. J. McLaughlin & J. S. Spatafora (Eds.), The Mycota systematics and evolution (2nd ed., pp. 141–175). New York: Springer. VII Part A.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., & Letcher, P. M. (2014b). Phylogeny and characterization of freshwater Chytridiomycota (Chytridiomycetes and Monoblepharidomycetes). In E. B. Gareth Jones, K. D. Hyde, & K.-L. Pang (Eds.), Freshwater fungi and fungus-like organisms (pp. 133–153). Berlin: De Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., & Roychoudhury, S. (1992). Ultrastructural organization of Rhizophlyctis harderi zoospores and redefinition of the type I microbody-lipid globule complex. Canadian Journal of Botany, 70, 750–761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., Letcher, P. M., & Longcore, J. E. (2011). Operculomyces is a new genus in the order Rhizophydiales. Mycologia, 103, 854–862.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., Letcher, P. M., & Longcore, J. E. (2013). Pseudorhizidium is a new genus with distinct zoospore ultrastructure in the order Chytridiales. Mycologia, 105, 496–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. J., Letcher, P. M., Chambers, J. G., & Roychoudhury, S. (2015). A new genus and family for the misclassified chytrid, Rhizophlyctis harderi. Mycologia, 107, 419–431.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reichle, R. E. (1972). Fine structure of Oedogoniomyces zoospores, with comparative observation on Monoblepharella zoospores. Canadian Journal of Botany, 50, 819–824.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Retallick, R. W. R., Miera, V., Richards, K. L., Field, K. J., & Collins, J. P. (2006). A non-lethal technique for detecting the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis on tadpoles. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 72, 77–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rezaeian, M., Beakes, G. W., & Parker, D. S. (2004). Methods for the isolation, culture and assessment of the status of anaerobic rumen chytrids in both in vitro and in vivo systems. Mycological Research, 34, 1215–1226.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenblum, E. B., Stajich, J. E., Maddox, N., & Eisen, M. B. (2008). Global gene expression profiles for life stages of the deadly amphibian pathogen Batrochochytrium dendrobatidis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A, 105, 17034–17039.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roychoudhury, S., & Powell, M. J. (1991). Ultrastructure of mitosis in the algal parasitic fungus Polyphagus euglenae. Canadian Journal of Botany, 69, 2201–2214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roychoudhury, S., & Powell, M. J. (1992). Precise flagellar configuration of the Rhizophlyctis harderii zoospore. Canadian Journal of Botany, 70, 762–771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scherffel, A. (1925). Endophytische Phycomyceten-Parasiten der Bacillariaceen und einige neue Monadinen. Ein Beitrag zur Phylogenie der Oomyceten (Schröter). Archiv für Protistenkunde, 52, 1–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, S. K., Naff, C. S., & Lynch, R. C. (2012). Fungal communities at the edge: Ecological lessons from high alpine fungi. Fungal Ecology, 5, 443–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scupham, A. J., Presley, L. L., Wei, B., Bent, E., Griffith, N., McPherson, M., Zhu, F., Oluwadara, O., Rao, N., Braun, J., & Borneman, J. (2006). Abundant and diverse fungal microbiota in the murine intestine. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72, 793–801.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sekimoto, S., Rochon, D., Long, J. E., Dee, J. M., & Berbee, M. L. (2011). A multigene phylogeny of Olpidium and its implications for early fungal evolution. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 11, 331. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-331.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Seto, S., & Degawa, Y. (2015). Cyclopsomyces plurioperculatus: A new genus and species of Lobulomycetales (Chytridiomycota, Chytridiomycetes) from Japan. Mycologia, 107, 633–640.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shearer, C. A., Langsam, D. M., & Longcore, J. E. (2004). Fungi in freshwater habitats. In G. M. Mueller, G. F. Bills, & M. S. Foster (Eds.), Biodiversity of fungi: Inventory and monitoring methods (pp. 513–531). Oxford: Elsevier.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, W., Boo, S. M., & Longcore, J. E. (2001). Entophlyctis apiculata, a chytrid parasite of Chlamydomonas sp. (Chlorophyceae). Canadian Journal of Botany, 79, 1083–1089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, D. R. (2011). Phylogeny of Powellomycetaceae fam.nov. and description of Geranomyces variabilis gen. et comb. nov. Mycologia, 103, 1411–1420.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, D. R., & Longcore, J. E. (2012). Thoreauomyces gen. nov., Fimicolochytrium gen. nov. and additional species in Geranomyces. Mycologia, 104, 1229–1243.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, D. R., James, T. Y., Meyer, A. F., & Longcore, J. E. (2009). Lobulomycetales, a new order in the Chytridiomycota. Mycological Research, 113, 450–460.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, D. R., Letcher, P. M., Powell, M. J., & Longcore, J. E. (2012). Alogomyces tanneri gen et sp. nov., a chytrid in Lobulomycetales from horse manure. Mycologia, 104, 157–163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. S., Rocheleau, H., Chapados, J. T., Abbott, C., Ribero, S., Redhead, S. A., Lévesque, A., & De Boer, S. H. (2014). Phylogeny of the genus Synchytrium and the development of TaqMan PCR assay for sensitive detection of Synchytrium endobioticum in soil. Phytopathology, 104, 422–432.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow, F. K. (1943). The aquatic Phycomycetes, exclusive of the Saprolegniaceae and Pythium. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow, F. K. (1960). The aquatic Phycomycetes (2nd ed. Rev.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow, F. K. (1973). The type of Chytridum olla A. Braun. Taxon, 22, 583–586.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steenkamp, E. T., Wright, J., & Baldauf, S. L. (2006). The protistan origins of animals and fungi. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 23, 93–106.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steiger, R. A., Simmons, D. R., & Longcore, J. E. (2011). Cylindrochytridium johnstonii is a member of the Cladochytriales. Mycotaxon, 118, 293–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tachezy, J. (2008). Hydrogenosomes and mitosomes: Mitochondria of anaerobic eukaryotes. Berlin/Heidleberg: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. W., & Fuller, M. S. (1981). The Golgi apparatus, zoosporogenesis, and development of the zoospore discharge apparatus of Chytridium confervae. Experimental Mycology, 5, 35–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, T. N., Hass, H., & Remy, W. (1992). Devonian fungi: Interactions with the green alga Palaeonitella. Mycologia, 84, 901–910.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Travland, L. B., & Whisler, H. C. (1971). Ultrastructure of Harpochytrium hedinii. Mycologia, 63, 767–789.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trinci, A., Davies, D., Gull, K., Lawrence, M., Nieslsen, B., Rickers, A., & Theodorou, M. (1994). Anaerobic fungi in herbivorous animals. Mycological Research, 98, 129–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ustinova, I., Krienitz, L., & Huss, V. A. R. (2000). Hyaloraphidium curvatum is not a green alga, but a lower fungus; Amoebidium parasiticum is not a fungus, but a member of the DRIPs. Protist, 151, 253–262.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Giezen, M., Birdsey, G. M., Horner, D. S., Lococq, J., Dyal, P. L., Benchimol, M., Danpure, C. J., & Embley, T. M. (2003). Fungal hydrogenosomes contain mitochondrial heat-shock proteins. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 20, 1051–1061.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vélez, C. G., Letcher, P. M., Schultz, S., Powell, M. J., & Churchill, P. F. (2011). Molecular phylogenetic and zoospore ultrastructural analyses of Chytridum olla establish the limits of a monophyletic Chytridiales. Mycologia, 103, 118–130.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vélez, C. G., Letcher, P. M., Schultz, S., Mataloni, G., Lefèvre, E., & Powell, M. J. (2013). Three new genera in Chytridales from aquatic habitats in Argentina. Mycologia, 105, 1251–1265.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vogel, H. J. (1964). Distribution of lysine pathways among fungi: Evolutionary implications. The American Naturalist, 98, 435–446.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wager, H. (1913). The life-history and cytology of Polyphagus euglenae. Annals of Botany, 27, 173–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wakefield, W. S., Powell, M. J., Letcher, P. M., Barr, D. J. S., Churchill, P. F., Longcore, J. E., & Chen, S.-F. (2010). A molecular phylogenetic evaluation of the Spizellomycetales. Mycologia, 102, 596–604.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weete, J. D., Fuller, M. S., Huang, M. Q., & Gandhi, S. (1989). Fatty acids and sterols of selected Hyphochytridomycetes and Chytridiomycetes. Experimental Mycology, 13, 183–195.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weldon, C., du Preez, L. H., Hyatt, A. D., Muller, R., & Speare, R. (2004). Origin of the amphibian chytrid fungus. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10, 2100–2105.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Whiffen, A. J. (1944). A discussion of taxonomic criteria in the Chytridiales. Farlowia, 1, 583–597.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whisler, H. C. (1987). On the isolation and culture of water molds: The Blastocladiales and Monoblepharidales. In M. S. Fuller & A. Jaworski (Eds.), Zoosporic fungi in teaching and research (pp. 121–124). Athens: Southeastern Publishing Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, L. G. (1998). A quantitative ecological study on the monocentric soil chytrid, Rhizophlyctis rosea, in Provence. Mycological Research, 102, 1338–1342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wubah, D. A., Fuller, M. S., & Akin, D. E. (1991). Resistant body formation in Neocallimastix sp., an anaerobic fungus from the rumen of a cow. Mycologia, 83, 40–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported in part by the following grants from the National Science Foundation: PEET (0529694), REVSYS (949305), DEB (1455611). I am appreciative to Dr. Peter M. Letcher for assistance assembling photographic plates and for discussion of concepts, Dr. Joyce E. Longcore for providing cultures of Harpochytrium sp. and Polychytrium sp. used for photographic observations, and Dr. Will H. Blackwell for help collecting algae infected with chytrids and for conversations about systematics.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA

    Martha J. Powell

Authors
  1. Martha J. Powell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Martha J. Powell .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

    John M. Archibald

  2. Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

    Alastair G.B. Simpson

  3. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University , Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

    Claudio H. Slamovits

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG

About this entry

Cite this entry

Powell, M.J. (2017). Chytridiomycota. In: Archibald, J., Simpson, A., Slamovits, C. (eds) Handbook of the Protists. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28149-0_18

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation