Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Conservation and Management of Vulnerable Marine Benthic Ecosystems

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Marine Animal Forests

Abstract

Apart from natural factors such as climatic variation, which can drive species and habitats to extinction over the long term, and devastating sporadic episodes, like volcanic eruptions, animal forests (e.g., coral reefs, gorgonian gardens, and sponge fields, among others) are mainly threatened by human activities. Coastal destruction, dredging, mining, offshore infrastructure, oil and gas production, pollution, and climate change are among the main anthropogenic threats faced by marine ecosystems, but fisheries have become the human activity with the greatest and most widespread impact upon reefs and other benthic ecosystems. During recent decades, some international conventions have aimed to reduce these impacts, trying also to bring together governments in order to stop the loss of biodiversity in the oceans. However, marine conservation still lags far behind the advances that have been made in the protection of terrestrial ecosystems. Most marine species and habitats are generally not well known or valued by decision-makers or the general public, and many efforts to introduce conservation measures have been blocked as a result of intensive lobbying by the bottom trawling sector. As a result, advances in management, including conservation, have been slow. There is a general consensus about the need to protect different marine habitats, ecosystems, and communities that are very productive and useful for humankind in many different ways. These are ecosystems which support the life cycles of commercial species, are essential for the global economy, form biodiversity hotspots, or are part of spectacular seascapes that constitute part of natural heritage. Yet the way forward for the conservation of animal forests worldwide is uncertain; there is still a broad and interesting debate on what should be done to protect them, and how this protection should be developed and implemented, both within national waters and in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Advances in international and national policies related to conservation and fisheries management have provided the first steps. However, these developments only address the tip of the iceberg of what should be done, based on the available scientific knowledge.

Seamounts, submarine canyons, hydrothermal vents, cold seeps, and other topographic features are known in many cases to be important biodiversity hotspots. Coral reefs, sponge aggregations, gorgonian and black coral gardens, sea pen fields, mollusk beds, and other animal forests have been recognized as key habitats which occur in many cases in association with topographic features such as the ones mentioned above. Most of these ecosystems are gradually becoming part of the international list of vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs), and in some regions, measures are being developed to protect them, particularly within Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs).

Marine science continuously provides data on new species, habitats, and communities, improving our understanding of their interspecific relationships, and the roles they play within marine ecosystems, and in the biosphere as a whole. In turn, marine management, including conservation, should also progress in light of this increasing knowledge. Human impacts must be necessarily included in the final equation, as we will continue to use marine resources. Ultimately, we are responsible for ensuring the long-term sustainability and health of the ocean realm.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 549.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 599.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Aguilar R, Pastor X, García S, Marín P, Ubero J. Importance of seamount-like feature for conserving Mediterranean marine habitats and threatened species. Rapport Commission International pour l’exploration scientifique de la Mer Méditerranée. 2013;40:716.

    Google Scholar 

  • Althaus F, Williams A, Kloser RJ, Seiler J, Bax NJ. Evaluating geomorphic features as surrogates for benthic biodiversity on Australia’s western continental margin. In: Harris PT, Baker EK, editors. Seafloor geomorphology as benthic habitat – GeoHab Atlas of seafloor geomorphic features and benthic habitats. Waltham: Elsevier Insights; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Althaus F, Williams A, Schlacher TA, Kloser RJ, Green MA, Barker BA, Bax NJ, Brodie P, Schlacher-Hoenlinger MA. Impacts of bottom trawling on deep-coral ecosystems of seamounts are long-lasting. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 2009;397:279–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amon RMW, Herndel GJ. Deposit feeding and sediment: I. inter-relationship between Holothuria tubulosa (Holothurioidea: Echinodermata) and the sediment microbial community. Mar Ecol. 1991a;12(2):163–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amon RMW, Herndel GJ. Deposit feeding and sediment: II. decomposition of fecal pellets of Holothuria tubulosa (Holothurioidea: Echinodermata). Mar Ecol. 1991b;12(2):175–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andréfouët S, Benzoni F, Payri C. A monospecific Millepora reef in Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia. Coral Reefs. 2014;33(2):463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Angeletti L, Ceregato A, Ghirelli M, Gualandi B, Lipparini E, Malatesta D, Sperotti A, Taviani M. ROV-SCUBA integrated survey of the Montecristo Island Nature Reserve (Tuscan Archipelago National Park, Mediterranean Sea). Int J Soc Underwater Tech. 2010;29(3):1–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • AquaSense. Distribution and threats of Arctica islandica – A.islandica as an example for listing of species and habitats subject to threat or rapid decline. The Netherlands Directorate General of Public Works and Water Management (RWS). North Sea Directorate; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arantes RCM, Castro CB, Pires DO, Seoane JCS. Depth and water mass zonation and species associations of cold-water octocoral and stony coral communities in the southwestern Atlantic. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 2009;397:71–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ardron JA, Gjerde K, Pullen S, Tilot V. Marine spatial planning in the high seas. Mar Policy. 2008;32:832–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Auster PJ. Linking deep-water corals and fish populations. In: George RY, Cairns SD, editors. Conservation and adaptive management of seamount and deep-sea coral ecosystems. Miami: University of Miami; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  • Auster PJ, Gjerde K, Heupel E, Watling L, Grehan A, Rogers AD. Definition and detection of vulnerable marine ecosystems on the high seas: problems with the “move-on” rule. ICES J Mar Sci. 2011;68(2):254–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Auster PJ, Lindholm J, Valentine PC. Variation in habitat use by juvenile Acadian redfish, Sebastes fasciatus. Environ Biol Fish. 2003;68:380–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ball BJ. Aspects of the biology and ecology of mixed aggregations of the epifaunal brittlestars Ophiothrix fragilis and Ophiocomina nigra (south and west coasts of Ireland). Ph.D Thesis, University College, Galway; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balmford A, Bruner A, Cooper P, Costanza R, Farber S, Green RE, Jenkins M, Jefferiss P, Jessamy V, Madden J, Munro K, Myers N, Naeem S, Paavola J, Rayment M, Rosendo S, Roughgarden J, Trumper K, Turner RK. Economic reasons for conserving wild nature. Science. 2002;297:950–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balmford A, Gravestock P, Hockley N, McClean CJ, Roberts CM. The worldwide costs of marine protected areas. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2004;101:9694–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baustian, MM, Hansen GJA, de Kluijver A, Robinson K, Henry EN, Knoll LB, Rose KC, Carey CC. Linking the bottom to the top in aquatic ecosystems: mechanisms and stressors of benthic-pelagic coupling. Eco-DAS X Symposium Proceedings [Internet]. ASLO 2014; 25–47. 2015 [cited 2016 August 4]; Chapter 3:25–47. Available from: http://aslo.org/books/ecodas10/ecodas10_025.pdf/DOI:10.4319/ecodas.2014.978-0-9845591-4-5.25]

  • Beck MW, Brumbaugh RD, Airoldi L, Carranza A, Coen LD, Crawford C, Defeo O, Edgar GJ, Hancock B, Kay M, Lenihan H, Luckenback MW, Toropova CL, Zhang G. Shellfish reefs at risk: a global analysis of problems and solutions. The Nature Conservancy: Arlington; 2009. Available from: https://www.conservationgateway.org/ConservationPractices/Marine/Documents/Shellfish%20Reefs%20at%20Risk-06.18.09-Pages.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellwood DR, Hoey AS, Choat JH. Limited functional redundancy in high diversity systems: resilience and ecosystem function on coral reefs. Ecol Lett. 2003;6(4):281–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berg T, Fürhaupter K, Teixeira H, Uusitalo L, Zampoukas N. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the ecosystem-based approach – pitfalls and solutions. Mar Pollut Bull. 2015;96:18–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bianchi C. Abundance and distribution of megafaunal invertebrates in NE Pacific submarine canyons and their ecological associations with demersal fishes. M.S. Thesis, Washington State University, Vancouver; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biber MF, Duineveld GCA, Lavaleye MSS, Davies AJ, Bergman MJN, van den Beld IMJ. Investigating the association of fish abundance and biomass with cold-water corals in the deep Northeast Atlantic Ocean using a generalised linear modeling approach. Deep-Sea Res Pt II. 2014;99:134–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowman RE. Feeding habits of ten Northwest Atlantic juvenile groundfish. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, NMFS, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole Laboratory; 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradstock M, Gordon DP. Coral-like bryozoan growths in Tasman Bay, and their protection to conserve commercial fish stocks. N Z J Mar Freshw Res. 1983;17(2):159–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown CJ, Smith SJ, Lawton P, Anderson JT. Benthic habitat mapping: a review of progress towards improved understanding of the spatial ecology of the seafloor using acoustic techniques. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2011;92(3):502–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown K, Buja K, Jury S, Monaco M, Banner A. Habitat suitability index models for eight fish and invertebrate species in Casco and Sheepscot Bays, Maine. N Am J Fish Manag. 2000;20(2):408–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buhl-Mortensen L, Mortensen PB. Distribution and diversity of species associated with deep-sea gorgonian corals off Atlantic Canada. In: Friewald A, Roberts JM, editors. Cold-water corals and ecosystems. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhl-Mortensen L, Mortensen PB, Armsworthy S, Jackson D. Field observations of Flabellum spp. and laboratory study of the behavior and respiration of Flabellum alabastrum. Bull Mar Sci. 2007;81(3):543–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhl-Mortensen L, Vanreusel A, Gooday AJ, Levin LA, Priede IG, Buhl-Mortensen P, Gheerardyn H, King NJ, Raes M. Biological structures as a source of habitat heterogeneity and biodiversity on the deep ocean margins. Mar Ecol. 2010;31(1):21–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buhl-Mortensen P, Buhl-Mortensen L. Diverse and vulnerable deep-water biotopes in the Hardangerfjord. Mar Biol Res. 2014;10(3):253–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke L, Reytar K, Spalding M, Perry AL. Reefs at risk revisited. Washington: World Resources Institute; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cartes JE, LoIacono C, Mamouridis V, López-Pérez C, Rodríguez P. Geomorphological, trophic and human influences on the bamboo coral Isidella elongata assemblages in the deep Mediterranean: to what extent does Isidella form habitat for fish and invertebrates? Deep Sea Res I. 2013;76:52–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cathalot C, van Oevelen D, Cox TJS, Kutti T, Lavaleye M, Duineveld G, FJR M. Cold-water coral reefs and adjacent sponge grounds: hotspots of benthic respiration and organic carbon cycling in the deep sea. Front Mar Sci. 2015;2:37. Available from: doi:10.3389/fmars.2015.00037.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cau A, Follesa MC, Bo M, Canese S, Bellodi A, Cannas R, Cau A. Leiopathes glaberrima forest from South West Sardinia: a thousand years old nursery area for the small spotted catshark Scyliorhinus canicula. Rapport Commission International pour l’exploration scientifique de la Mer Méditerranee. 2014;40.

    Google Scholar 

  • CBD. Decision adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at its Ninth Meeting. Marine and coastal biodiversity. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/IX/20. CBD Decision; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • CBD. Decision adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at its Twelfth Meeting. Marine and coastal biodiversity: ecologically or biologically significant areas (EBSAs). UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/XII/22. CBD Decision; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • CBD. Ecologically or biologically significant marine areas: Special places in the world’s oceans [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2016 December 11]. Available from: https://www.cbd.int/ebsa/

  • CCAMLR. Restrictions on the use of bottom trawling gear in high-seas areas of the Convention Area. CCAMLR Conservation Measure 22–05 [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: https://www.ccamlr.org/en/measure-22-05-2008

  • CCAMLR. Interim prohibition of deep-sea gillnetting. CCAMLR Conservation Measure 22–04 [Internet]. 2010 [cited 2016 Dec 12]. Available from: https://www.ccamlr.org/en/measure-22-04-2010

  • CCAMLR. Protection of registered vulnerable marine ecosystems in subareas, divisions, small-scale research units, or management areas open to bottom fishing. CCAMLR Conservation Measure 22–09 [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: https://www.ccamlr.org/en/measure-22-09-2012

  • CCAMLR. Interim measure for bottom fishing activities subject to Conservation Measure 22–06 encountering potential vulnerable marine ecosystems in the Convention Area. CCAMLR Conservation Measure 22–07 [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2016 Dec 11]. Available from: https://www.ccamlr.org/sites/drupal.ccamlr.org/files/22-07_2.pdf

  • CCAMLR. Bottom fishing in the Convention Area. CCAMLR Conservation Measure 22–06 [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2016 Dec 11]. Available from: https://www.ccamlr.org/sites/drupal.ccamlr.org/files/22-06_16.pdf

  • Chen C, Dai CF. Subtidal sabellarid reefs in Hualien, eastern Taiwan. Coral Reefs. 2009;28(1):275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cocito S. Le Biocostruzioni a Briozoi Bryozoan Bioconstructions. Biol Mar Mediterr. 2009;16(1):19–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colloca F, Carpentieri P, Balestri E, Ardizzone GD. A critical habitat for Mediterranean fish resources: shelf break areas with Leptometra phalangium (Echinodermata, Crinoidea). Mar Biol. 2004;145:1129–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook R, Fariñas-Franco JM, Gell FR, Holt RHF, Holt T, Lindenbaum C, Porter JS, Seed R, Skates LR, Stringell TB, Sanderson WG. The substantial first impact of bottom fishing on rare biodiversity hotspots: a dilemma for evidence-based conservation. PLoS One. 2013;8(8):e69904.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Costanza R, d’Arge R, de Groot R, Farber S, Grasso M, Hannon B, Limburg K, Naeem S, O’Neill RV, Paruelo J, Raskin RG, Sutton P, van den Belt M. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature. 1997;387:253–60.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costanza R, de Groot R, Sutton P, van der Ploeg S, Anderson SJ, Kubiszewski I, Farber S, Turner RK. Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Glob Environ Chang. 2014;26:152–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costello MJ, Ballantine B. Biodiversity conservation should focus on no-take marine reserves: 94% of marine protected areas allow fishing. Trends Ecol Evol. 2015;30(9):507–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cranfield HJ, Manighetti B, Michael KP, Hill A. Effects of oyster dredging on the distribution of bryozoan biogenic reefs and associated sediments in Foveaux Strait, southern New Zealand. Cont Shelf Res. 2003;23:1337–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cuenot L. Commensalisme des pontes de cephalopods avec des éponges et des cnidaires. Bulletin de la Station Biologique d’Arcachon. 1936;37–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dauvin JC, Bellan-Santini D. Ampeliscidae (Amphipoda) from the Bay of Biscay. J Crustac Biol. 1996;16(1):149–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Groot R, Brander L, van der Ploeg S, Costanza R, Bernard F, Braat L, Christie M, Crossman N, Ghermandi A, Hein L, Hussain S, Kumar P, McVittie A, Portela R, Rodriguez LC, ten Brink P, van Beukering P. Global estimates of the value of ecosystems and their services in monetary units. Ecosyst Serv. 2012;1(1):50–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Degraer S, Moerkerke G, Rabaut M, Van Hoey G, Du Four I, Vincx M, Henriet JP, Van Lancker V. Very-high resolution side-scan sonar mapping of biogenic reefs of the tube-worm Lanice conchilega. Remote Sens Environ. 2008;112:3323–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delance JH, Emig CC. Drilling predation on Gryphus vitreus (Brachiopoda) off the French Mediterranean coasts. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol. 2004;208(1–2):23–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demchenko NL, Chapman JW, Durkina VB, Fadeev VI. Life History and Production of the Western Gray Whale’s Prey, Ampelisca eschrichtii Krøyer, 1842 (Amphipoda, Ampeliscidae). PLoS One. 2016;11(1):e0147304. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147304.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Derraik JGB. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar Pollut Bull. 2002;44:842–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Devillers R, Pressey RL, Grech A, Kittinger JN, Edgar GJ, Ward T, Watson R. Reinventing residual reserves in the sea: are we favouring ease of establishment over need for protection? Aquat Conserv Mar Freshwat Ecosyst. 2015;25:480–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dias AS, Paula J. Associated fauna of Sabellaria alveolata colonies on the central coast of Portugal. J Mar Biol Assoc U K. 2001;81(1):169–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dubois S, Retière C, Olivier F. Biodiversity associated with Sabellaria alveolata (Polychaeta: Sabellaridae) reefs: effects of human disturbances. J Mar Biol Assoc U K. 2002;82:817–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunstan PK, Althaus F, Williams A, Bax NJ. Characterising and predicting benthic biodiversity for conservation planning in deepwater environments. PLoS One. 2012;7(5):e36558.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Edgar GJ, Stuart-Smith RD, Willis TJ, Kininmonth S, Baker SC, Banks S, Barrett NS, Becerro MA, Bernard ATF, Berkhout J, Buxton CD, Campbell SJ, Cooper AT, Davey M, Edgar SC, Försterra G, Galván DE, Irigoyen AJ, Kushner DJ, Moura R, Parnell PE, Shears NT, Soler G, Strain EMA, Thomson RJ. Global conservation outcomes depend on marine protected areas with five key features. Nature. 2014;506:216–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edinger EN, Wareham VE, Haedrich RL. Patterns of groundfish diversity and abundance in relation to deep-sea coral distributions in Newfoundland and Labrador waters. In: George RY, Cairns SD, editors. Conservation and adaptive management of seamount and deep-sea coral ecosystems. Miami: University of Miami; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards RL. Middle Atlantic fisheries: recent changes in populations and outlook. In: Gross MG, editor. Middle Atlantic Continental Shelf and the New York Bight. The American Society of Limnology and Oceanography. Special Symposia Volume 2; 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Esposito V, Giacobbe S, Cosentino A, Minerva CS, Romeo T. Distribution and ecology of the tube-dweller Ampelisca ledoyeri (Amphipoda: Ampeliscidae) associated with the hydrothermal field off Panarea Island (Tyrrhenian Sea, Mediterranean). Mar Biodivers. 2015;45(4):763–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Guidelines for an integrated approach to Maritime Policy: towards best practice in integrated maritime governance and stakeholder consultation. COM (2008) 395 final. Brussels: European Commission; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO. International guidelines for the management of deep-sea fisheries in the high seas. Rome: FAO; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO. Vulnerable marine ecosystems. 2016 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/in-action/vulnerable-marine-ecosystems/en/

  • Filbee-Dexter K, Scheibling RE. Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 2014;495:1–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fonseca P, Abrantes F, Aguilar R, Campos A, Cunha M, Ferreira D, Fonseca TP, García S, Henriques V, Machado M, Mechó A, Relvas P, Rodrigues CF, Salgueiro E, Vieira R, Weetman A, Castro M. A deep-water crinoid Leptometra celtica bed off the Portuguese south coast. Mar Biodivers. 2014;44(2):223–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freese JL. Trawl-induced damage to sponges observed from a research submersible. Mar Fish Rev. 2001;63(3):7–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freese JL, Auster PJ, Heifetz J, Wing BL. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 1999;182:119–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freese JL, Wing BL. Juvenile red rockfish, Sebastes sp., associations with sponges in the Gulf of Alaska. Mar Fish Rev. 2003;65(3):38–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller SD, Murillo Perez FJ, Wareham V, Kenchington E. Vulnerable marine eco-systems dominated by deep-water corals and sponges in the NAFO Convention Area [Internet]. NAFO SCR Doc. 08/22 Serial No. N5524. 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galparsoro I, Borja A, Uyarra MC. Mapping ecosystem services provided by benthic habitats in the European North Atlantic Ocean. Front Mar Sci. 2014;1:23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • GFCM. Recommendation GFCM/2005/1 on the management of certain fisheries exploiting demersal and deepwater species [Internet]. 2005 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/DOCUMENT/gfcm/web/GFCM_Recommendations2005.pdf

  • GFCM. Establishment of fisheries restricted areas in order to protect the deep sea sensitive habitats. GFCM Recommendation on Conservation and Management - REC.CM-GFCM/30/2006/3 [Internet]. 2006 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-ax875e.pdf

  • GFCM. Establishing a multiannual management plan for the fisheries exploiting European hake and deep-water rose shrimp in the Strait of Sicily (GSA 12 to 16). GFCM Recommendation on Conservation and Management - REC.CM- GFCM/40/2016/4 [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2016 Dec 12]. Available from: https://gfcm.sharepoint.com/CoC/_layouts/15/guestaccess.aspx?guestaccesstoken=X6nD%2fdeJy59BXrrJM9Yf2A%2bP84cFU8P3zx4HF5cFM1M%3d&docid=0fe58a6b877f242e7b8d561fbbdc3096c&rev=1

  • Gianni M, Currie DEJ, Fuller S, Speer L, Ardron J, Weeber B, Gibson M, Roberts G, Sack K, Owen S, Kavanagh A. Unfinished business: a review of the implementation of the provisions of UNGA resolutions 61/105 and 64/72 related to the management of bottom fisheries in areas beyond national jurisdiction [Internet]. Deep Sea Conservation Coalition; 2011. Available from: http://www.savethehighseas.org/publicdocs/dscc_review11.pdf

  • Gonzalez-Mirelis G, Buhl-Mortensen P. Modelling benthic habitats and biotopes off the coast of Norway to support spatial management. Eco Inform. 2015;30:284–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Göransson P, Bertilsson Vuksan S, Karlfelt J, Börjesson L. Haploops-samhället och Modiolus-smahället utanför Helsingborg 2000–2009. Miljönämnden i Helsingborg; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregory MR. Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings—entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions. Philos Trans R Soc Lon B Biol Sci. 2010;364:2013–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gutt J, Piepenburg D. Dense aggregations of three deep-sea holothurians in the southern Weddell Sea, Antarctica. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 1991;68:277–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall-Spencer J, Allain V, Fosså JH. Trawling damage to Northeast Atlantic ancient coral reefs. Proc R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci. 2002;269:507–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halpern BS, Walbridge S, Selkoe KA, Kappel CV, Micheli F, D’Agrosa C, Bruno JF, Casey KS, Ebert C, Fox HE, Fujita R, Heinemann D, Lenihan HS, Madin MEP, Perry MT, Selig ER, Spalding M, Steneck R, Watson R. A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science. 2008;319(5865):948–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen S, Ward P, Penney A. Identification of vulnerable benthic taxa in the western SPRFMO Convention Area and review of move-on rules for different gear types. SPRFMO Paper SC-01-09; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harmelin JG, d’Hondt JL. Transfer of bryozoan species between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea via the Gibraltar Strait. Oceanol Acta. 1993;16(1):63–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Häussermann VG. Extraordinary abundance of hydrocorals (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa, Stylasteridae) in shallow water of the Patagonian fjord region. Polar Biol. 2007;30(4):487–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Häussermann V, Försterra G. Vast reef-like accumulation of the hydrocoral Errina antarctica (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) wiped out in Central Patagonia. Coral Reefs. 2014;33(1):29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henry L-A, Moreno-Navas J, Hennige SJ, Wicks LC, Vad J, Roberts JM. Cold-water coral reef habitats benefit recreationally valuable sharks. Biol Conserv. 2013;161:67–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hixon MA, Tissot BN. Comparison of trawled vs. untrawled mud seafloor assemblages of fishes and macroinvertebrates at Coquille Bank, Oregon. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol. 2007;34:23–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoegh-Guldberg O, Bruno JF. The impact of climate change on the world’s marine ecosystems. Science. 2010;328:1523–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoegh-Guldberg O, Mumby PJ, Hooten AJ, Steneck RS, Greenfield P, Gomez E, Harvell CD, Sale PF, Edwards AJ, Caldeira K, Knowlton N, Eakin CM, Iglesias-Prieto R, Muthiga N, Bradbury RH, Dubi A, Hatziolos M. Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science. 2007;318(5857):1737–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holt TJ, Rees EI, Hawkins SJ, Seed R. An overview of dynamic and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of marine SACs. Biogenic Reefs Volume IX. Scottish Association for Marine Science (UK Marine SACs Project); 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu MZ, Li JC, Li H, Shen CY, Jin TY, Xin LL. Predicting global seafloor topography using multi-source data. Mar Geod. 2014;38(2):176–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ICES. Report of the ICES-NAFO Working Group on Deep-water Ecology (WGDEC). ICES CM 2009/ACOM:23 [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2016 Nov 30]. Available from: http://vme.ices.dk/download/WGDEC_2009.pdf

  • Ilan M, Gugel J, Galil BS, Janussen D. Small bathyal sponge species from east Mediterranean revealed by a non-regular soft bottom sampling technique. Ophelia. 2003;57(3):145–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IUCN. Building a global system of marine and coastal protected area networks. Recommendation 5.22 - IUCN World Park Congress, Durban, South Africa, 8–17 September 2003 [Internet]. 2003 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: http://www.uicnmed.org/web2007/CDGovernance/conten/1-leproblematique/3-Documents-inter/IUCN-documents/WPC-Res22.pdf

  • IUCN. A strategy of innovative approaches and recommendations to enhance implementation of marine conservation in the next decade. IUCN World Parks Congress, Sydney, Australia [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: http://worldparkscongress.org/drupal/sites/default/files/documents/docs/For%20Translation%20FINAL%20Marine%20Theme%20Innovative%20Approaches%2022%20Oct.pdf

  • IUCN. The IUCN red list of Anthozoans in the Mediterranean [Internet]. IUCN factsheet; 2016 [cited 2016 December 11]. Available from: https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/anzothoa_fact_sheet_final_baja.pdf

  • Jackson J, Donovan M, Cramer K, Lam V (editors). Status and trends of Caribbean Coral Reefs: 1970–2012. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland; 2014 .

    Google Scholar 

  • Jamieson AJ, Gebruk A, Fujii T, Solan M. Functional effects of the hadal sea cucumber Elpidia atakama (Holothuroidea, Elasipodida) reflect small scale patterns of resource availability. Mar Biol. 2011;158(12):2695–703.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson MP, White M, Wilson A, Würzberg L, Schwabe E, Folch H, Allcock AL. A vertical wall dominated by Acesta excavata and Neopycnodonte zibrowii, part of an undersampled group of deep-sea habitats. PLoS One. 2013;8(11):e79917. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079917.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones ML. Riftia pachyptila, new genus, new species, the Vestimentiferan worm from the Galápagos Rift geothermal vents. Proc Biol Soc Wash. 1981;93(4):1295–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenchington TJ. Encounter protocols for avoidance of harm to vulnerable marine ecosystems: a global review of experience to 2010. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Res.Doc. 2011/009; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenchington E, Murillo FJ, Cogswell A, Lirette C. Development of encounter protocols and assessment of significant adverse impact by bottom trawling for sponge grounds and sea pen fields in the NAFO regulatory area. NAFO Scientific Council Research Document 11/75; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenchington E, Power D, Koen-Alonso M. Associations of demersal fish with sponge grounds on the continental slopes of the northwest Atlantic. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 2013;477:217–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny AJ, Cato I, Desprez M, Fader G, Schüttenhelm RTE, Side J. An overview of seabed-mapping technologies in the context of marine habitat classification. ICES J Mar Sci. 2002;60(2):411–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klitgaard AB. The fauna associated with outer shelf and upper slope sponges (Porifera, Demospongiae) at the Faroe Islands, northeastern Atlantic. Sarsia. 1995;80:1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klitgaard AB, Tendal OS. Distribution and species composition of mass occurrences of large-sized sponges in the Northeast Atlantic. Prog Oceanogr. 2004;61(1):57–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knowlton N. Sea urchin recovery from mass mortality: new hope for Caribbean coral reefs? Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2001;98:4822–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Krieger KJ, Wing BL. Megafauna associations with deepwater corals (Primnoa spp.) in the Gulf of Alaska. Hydrobiologia. 2002;471(1):83–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larcombe MF, Russell BC. Egg laying behaviour of the broad squid, Sepioteuthis bilineata. N Z J Mar Freshw Res. 1971;5(1):3–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Large PA, Agnew DJ, Álvarez Pérez JA, Barrio Froján C, Cloete R, Damalas D, Dransfeld L, Edwards CTT, Feist S, Figueiredo I, González F, Gil Herrera J, Kenny A, Jakobsdóttir K, Longshaw M, Lorance P, Marchal P, Mytilineou C, Planque B, Politou CY. Strengths and weaknesses of the management and monitoring of deep-water stocks, fisheries, and ecosystems in various areas of the world—a roadmap toward sustainable deep-water fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic? Rev Fish Sci. 2013;21(2):157–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lauzon-Guay J-S, Scheibling RE. Behaviour of sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) grazing fronts: food-mediated aggregation and density-dependent facilitation. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 2007;329:191–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Pape O, Delavenne J, Vaz S. Quantitative mapping of fish habitat: a useful tool to design spatialised management measures and marine protected area with fishery objectives. Ocean Coast Manag. 2014;97:8–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lessios HA. Mass mortality of Diadema antillarum in the Caribbean: what have we learned? Annu Rev Ecol Syst. 1988;19:371–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis JB. The ecology of Millepora. Coral Reefs. 1989;8(3):99–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindholm JB, Auster PJ, Kaufman LS. Habitat-mediated survivorship of juvenile (0-year) Atlantic cod Gadus morhua. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 1999;180:247–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindley JA, Gamble JC, Hunt HG. A change in the zooplankton of the central North Sea (55_to 58_N): a possible consequence of changes in the benthos. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 1995;119:299–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindner A. Diversity of stylasterid corals (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa: Stylasteridae) in deep water habitats of New Caledonia. In: Payri CE, Richier de Forges B, editors. Compendium of marine species of New Caledonia. 2nd ed. Nouméa (Documents Scientifiques et Techniques: II7): Institut de Recherche pour le Développement; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  • López-Correa M, Freiwald A, Hall-Spencer J, Taviani M. Distribution and habitats of Acesta excavata (Bivalvia: Limidae) with new data on its shell ultrastructure. In: Freiwald A, Roberts JM, editors. Cold-water corals and ecosystems. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maldonado M, Navarro L, Grasa A, Gonzalez A, Vaquerizo I. Silicon uptake by sponges: a twist to understanding nutrient cycling on continental margins. Nature Scientific Reports [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2016 Nov 30]; 1:30. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep00030

  • Maldonado M, Ribes M, van Duyl FC. Nutrient fluxes through sponges: biology, budgets, and ecological implications. Adv Mar Biol. 2012;62:113–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mangano MC, Porporato E, De Domenico F, Profeta A, Busalacchi B, Spanò N. Leptometra phalangium (J. Müller, 1841) fields from the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea: preliminary data on the associated fauna. Biol Mar Mediterr. 2010;17(1):304–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maynou F, Cartes JE. Effects of trawling on fish and invertebrates from deep-sea coral facies of Isidella elongata in the western Mediterranean. J Mar Biol Assoc U K. 2011;92(7):1501–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McConnaughey RA, Mier KL, Dew CB. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES J Mar Sci. 2000;57:1377–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mercaldo-Allen R, Goldberg R. Review of the ecological effects of dredging in the cultivation and harvest of molluscan shellfish. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS NE 220; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Millenium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Washington: Island Press; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller RJ, Hocevar J, Stone RP, Fedorov DV. Structure-forming corals and sponges and their use as fish habitat in Bering Sea submarine canyons. PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e33885. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0033885.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • MMO. Follow on to the development of spatial models of essential fish habitat for the south inshore and offshore marine plan areas. Marine Management Organisation report (MMO1096) [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2016 Nov 30]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/follow-on-to-the-development-of-spatial-models-of-essential-fish-habitat-for-the-south-inshore-and-offshore-marine-plan-areas-mmo1096

  • Moore CG, Saunders GR, Harries DB. The status and ecology of reefs of Serpula vermicularis L. (Polychaeta: Serpulidae) in Scotland. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshwat Ecosyst. 1998;8(5):645–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moran MJ, Stephenson PC. Effects of otter trawling on macrobenthos and management of demersal scalefish fisheries on the continental shelf of north-western Australia. ICES J Mar Sci. 2000;57:510–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moriarty DJW. Feeding of Holothuria atra and Stichopus chloronotus on bacteria, organic carbon and organic nitrogen in sediments of the Great Barrier Reef. Aust J Mar Freshwat Res. 1982;33:255–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mortensen PB, Fossa JH. Species diversity and spatial distribution of invertebrates on deep-water Lophelia reefs in Norway. Proceedings of the 10th International Coral Reef Symposium 2006; 1849–1868.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murillo FJ, Duran Muñoz P, Sacau M, Gonzalez-Troncoso D, Serrano A. Preliminary data on cold-water corals and large sponges by-catch from Spanish/EU bottom trawl groundfish surveys in NAFO Regulatory Area (Divs. 3LMNO) and Canadian EEZ (Div. 3L) 2005–2007 period. NAFO Scientific Council Research Document 08/10; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • NAFO. Conservation and enforcement measures. NAFO/FC Doc. 16/01. NAFO publication [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: http://archive.nafo.int/open/fc/2016/fcdoc16-01.pdf

  • Nagelkerken I, Nagelkerken WP. Loss of coral cover and biodiversity on shallow Acropora and Millepora reefs after 31 years on Curaçao Netherlands Antilles. Bull Mar Sci. 2004;74(1):213–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • NEAFC. Recommendation to temporarily prohibit the use of gillnets, entangling nets and trammel nets in the NEAFC Regulatory Area. NEAFC recommendation 03:2006 [Internet]. 2006 [cited 2016 Dec 12]. Available from: https://www.neafc.org/system/files/rec-3_deep-water-gillnet-.pdf

  • NEAFC. Recommendation on the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems in NEAFC Regulatory Area. NEAFC recommendation 19:2014 as Amended by Recommendation 09:2015 [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: http://www.neafc.org/system/files/Rec_19-2014_as_amended_by_09_2015_fulltext_0.pdf

  • Nehls G, Witte S, Büttger H, Dankers N, Jansen J, Millat G, Herlyn M, Markert A, Kristensen PS, Ruth M, Buschbaum C, Wehrmann A. Beds of blue mussels and Pacific oysters. Thematic Report No. 11. In: Marencic H, Vlas J, editors. Quality Status Report 2009. Wadden Sea Ecosystem No. 25. Wilhelmshaven: Common Wadden Sea Secretariat; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • NOAA. Essential fish habitat mapper – Version 3.0 [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2016 Nov 30]. Available from: http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/protection/efh/habitatmapper.html

  • Nouar A, Maurin C. Nature of and typical populations on the characteristic facies of substratum of Parapenaeus longirostris (Lucas, 1846) along the Algerian coast. Crustaceana. 2001;74(2):129–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NPFC. Conservation and management measure for bottom fisheries and protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean. 2016a [Internet]. [cited 2016 Dec 11]. Available from: http://npfc.r-cms.jp/direct/topics/topics_pdf_download/topics_id=975&no=5

  • NPFC. Conservation and management measure for bottom fisheries and protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean. 2016b [Internet]. [cited 2016 Dec 11]. Available from: http://npfc.r-cms.jp/direct/topics/topics_pdf_download/topics_id=975&no=6

  • NRC. Oil in the sea III: inputs, fates and effects. Washington: National Academies Press; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oceana, IEO. Informe de síntesis para proceder a la elaboración del borrador del Plan de Gestión del LIC “Sur de Almería- Seco de los Olivos”: Seco de los Olivos. Proyecto LIFE+ INDEMARES (LIFE07/NAT/E/00732) [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2016 Nov 30]. Available from: http://www.indemares.es/sites/default/files/informe_final_seco_de_los_olivos_-_oceana.pdf

  • Okutani T, Sasaki T. Eggs of Rossia mollicella (Cephalopoda: Sepiolidae) deposited in a deep-sea sponge. J Molluscan Stud. 2007;73(3):287–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Leary BC, Brown RL, Johnson DE, von Nordheim H, Ardron J, Packeiser T, Roberts CM. The first network of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the high seas: the process, the challenges and where next. Mar Policy. 2012;36(3):598–605.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OSPAR. List of threatened and/or declining species & habitats [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: http://www.ospar.org/work-areas/bdc/species-habitats/list-of-threatened-declining-species-habitats

  • OSPAR. Assessment of impacts of offshore oil and gas activities in the North-East Atlantic. Publication number 453/2009. London: OSPAR Commission; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pansini M, Musso B. Sponges from trawl-exploitable bottoms of Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas: distribution and ecology. Mar Ecol. 1991;12(4):317–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulomäki H, Abel C, Bialas A. Management matters: ridding the Baltic Sea of paper parks. Madrid: Oceana; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pauly D. Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries. Trends Ecol Evol. 1995;10(10):430.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pham CK, Vandeperre F, Menezes G, Porteiro F, Isidro E, Morato T. The importance of deep-sea vulnerable marine ecosystems for demersal fish in the Azores. Deep-Sea Research I. 2015;96:80–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poloczanska ES, Brown CJ, Sydeman WJ, Kiessling W, Schoeman DS, Moore PJ, Brander K, Bruno FJ, Buckley LB, Burrows MT, Duarte CM, Halpern BS, Holding J, Kappel CV, O’Connor MI, Pandolfi JM, Parmesan C, Schwing F, Thompson SA, Richardson AJ. Global imprint of climate change on marine life. Nat Clim Chang. 2013;3:919–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramirez-Llodra E, Shank TM, German CR. Biodiversity and biogeography of hydrothermal vent species: thirty years of discovery and investigations. Oceanography. 2007;20(1):30–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed JK, Shepard AN, Koenig CC, Scanlon KM, Gilmore Jr RG. Mapping, habitat characterization, and fish surveys of the deep-water Oculina coral reef marine protected area: a review of historical and current research. In: Freiwald A, Roberts JM, editors. Cold-Water Corals and Ecosystems. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rife AN, Erisman B, Sanchez A, Aburto-Oropeza O. When good intentions are not enough... Insights on networks of marine “paper park” marine protected areas. Conserv Lett. 2013;6:200–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodney WS, Paynter KT. Comparisons of macrofaunal assemblages on restored and non-restored oyster reefs in mesohaline regions of Chesapeake Bay in Maryland. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol. 2006;335:39–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roff JC, Taylor ME, Laughren J. Geophysical approaches to the classification, delineation and monitoring of marine habitats and their communities. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshwat Ecosyst. 2003;13:77–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers AD, Gianni M. The implementation of UNGA Resolutions 61/105 and 64/72 in the management of deep-sea fisheries on the high seas. Report prepared for the deep-sea conservation coalition. London: International Programme on the State of the Ocean; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sadovy de Mitcheson Y, Colin PL (Eds). Reef fish spawning aggregations: biology, research and management. Dordrecht: Springer; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salomon M, Dross M. Challenges in cross-sectoral marine protection in Europe. Mar Policy. 2013;42:142–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salvati E, Angiolillo M, Bo M, Bavestrello G, Giusti M, Cardinali A, Puce S, Spaggiari C, Greco S, Canese S. The population of Errina aspera (Hydrozoa: Stylasteridae) of the Messina Strait (Mediterranean Sea). J Mar Biol Assoc UK. 2010;90(7):1331–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheibling RE. Dynamics and feeding activity of high-density aggregations of Oreaster reticulatus (L.) (Ehinodermata: Asteroidea) in a sand patch habitat. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 1980;2:321–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SEAFO. Recommendation on banning of gillnets 2/2009. SEAFO recommendation [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2016 Dec 12]. Available from: http://www.seafo.org/media/0c9b0f68-12cd-4862-ac78-1ce0d84442d7/SEAFOweb/CM/open/eng/rec01-09_pdf

  • SEAFO. Conservation Measure 30/15 on bottom fishing activities and vulnerable marine ecosystems in the SEAFO convention area. SEAFO Conservation Measure [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: http://www.seafo.org/media/8933d489-854c-4c99-895e-66573c7010a4/SEAFOweb/CM/open/eng/CM30-15_pdf

  • Spalding MD, Meliane I, Milam A, Fitzgerald C, Hale LZ. Protecting marine spaces: global targets and changing approaches. Ocean Yearbook. 2013;27:213–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • STECF. Sensitive and essential fish habitats in the Mediterranean Sea. Commission Staff Working Paper [Internet]. 2006 [cited 2016 Nov 30]. Available from: https://stecf.jrc.ec.europa.eu/documents/43805/122924/06-04_SG-MED+06-01+-+Sensitive+habitats_SECxxx.pdf

  • Smith VH, Tilman GD, Nekola JC. Eutrophication: impacts of excess nutrient inputs on freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems. Environ Pollut. 1999;100(1–3):179–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • SPRFMO. Conservation and management measure for gillnets in the SPRFMO Convention Area. SPRFMO Conservation and Management Measure 1.02 [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2016 Dec 12]. Available from: https://www.sprfmo.int/assets/Fisheries/Conservation-and-Management-Measures/CMM-1.02-Gillnetting-2013-4Mar2016.pdf

  • SPRFMO. Conservation and management measure for the management of bottom fishing in the SPRFMO convention area. SPRFMO Conservation and Management Measure 4.03 [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2016 Nov 30]. Available from: https://www.sprfmo.int/assets/Fisheries/Conservation-and-Management-Measures/CMM-4.03-Bottom-Fishing-2016-4Mar2016.pdf

  • Takada Y, Abe O, Shibuno T. Variations in cryptic assemblages in coral-rubble interstices at a reef slope in Ishigaki Island Japan. Fish Sci. 2012;78(1):91–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • TEEB. The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity: ecological and economic foundations. In: Kumar P, editor. London/Washington: Earthscan; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresher RE, Adkins J, Fallon SJ, Gowlett-Holmes K, Althaus F, Williams A. Extraordinarily high biomass benthic community on Southern Ocean seamounts. Nature – Scientific Reports. 2011;1:119. doi:10.1038/srep00119.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thurstan RH, Brockington S, Roberts CM. The effects of 118 years of industrial fishing on UK bottom trawl fisheries. Nat Commun. 2010;1:15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Titschack J, Baum D, de Pol-Holz R, López Correa M, Forster N, Flogel S, Hebbeln D, Freiwald A. Aggradation and carbonate accumulation of Holocene Norwegian cold-water coral reefs. Sedimentology. 2015;62:1873–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNEP. Convention on biological diversity – Aichi targets [Internet]. 2010 [cited 2016 Nov 29]. Available from: https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/

  • UNEP-WCMC, IUCN. Protected Planet Report 2016 [Internet]. UNEP-WCMC and IUCN report, Cambridge/Gland; 2016. Available from: https://www.protectedplanet.net

  • UNGA. Resolution 59/25 – Sustainable fisheries, including through the 1995 Agreement for the of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, and related instruments. UNGA Resolution; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNGA. Resolution 61/105 – Sustainable fisheries, including through the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, and related instruments. UNGA Resolution; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNGA. Resolution 64/72 – Sustainable fisheries, including through the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, and related instruments. UNGA Resolution; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uthicke S. Nutrient regeneration by abundant coral reef holothurians. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol. 2001;265:153–70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Valavanis VD (Ed). Essential fish habitat mapping in the Mediterranean. Dordrecht: Springer; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Dover CL. The ecology of deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Princeton University Press: Princeton; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hoof L, van Leeuwen J, van Tatenhove J. All at sea: regionalisation and integration of marine policy in Europe. Maritime Studies. 2012;11:9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vinogradov GM. Amphipods from hydrothermal vents and cold sleeping on the ocean bottom. Oceanology. 1995;35(1):69–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Voultsiadou E, Pyrounaki M-M, Chintiroglou C. The habitat engineering tunicate Microcosmus sabatieri Roule, 1885 and its associated peracarid epifauna. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2007;74:197–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weaver PPE, Benn A, Arana PM, Ardron JA, Bailey DM, Baker K, Billett DSM, Clark MR, Davies AJ, Durán Muñoz P, Fuller SD, Gianni M, Grehan AJ, Guinotte J, Kenny A, Koslow JA, Morato T, Penney AJ, Perez JJA, Priede IG, Rogers AD, Santos RS, Watling L. The impact of deep-sea fisheries and implementation of the UNGA resolutions 61/105 and 64/72. Report of an international scientific workshop. Southampton: National Oceanography Centre; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wessel P, Sandwell DT, Kim S-S. The global seamount census. Oceanography. 2010;23(1):24–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White AT, Courtney CA. Policy instruments for coral reef management and their effectiveness. In: Ahmed M, Chong CK, Cesar H, editors. Economic valuation and policy priorities for sustainable management of coral reefs. 2nd ed. WorldFish Center Conference Proceedings 70. Penang: WorldFish Center; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson SK, Depczynski M, Fisher R, Holmes TH, O'Leary RA, Tinkler P. Habitat associations of juvenile fish at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia: the importance of coral and algae. PLoS One. 2010;5(12):e15185.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wisshak M, López-Correa M, Gofas S, Salas C, Taviani M, Jakobsen J, Freiwald A. Shell architecture, element composition, and stable isotope signature of the giant deep-sea oyster Neopycnodonte zibrowii sp. n. from the NE Atlantic. Deep Sea Res I. 2009;56:374–407.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood LJ, Fish L, Laughren J, Pauly D. Assessing progress towards global marine protection targets: shortfalls in information and action. Oryx. 2008;42:340–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright G, Rochette J, Druel E, Gjerde K. The long and winding road continues: towards a new agreement on high seas governance. Paris: IDDRI; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yakovis EL, Artemieva AV, Fokin MV, Grishankov AV, Shunatova NN. Patches of barnacles and ascidians in soft bottoms: associated motile fauna in relation to the surrounding assemblage. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol. 2005;327:210–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Oceana is grateful for the generous support of Adessium Foundation, the Dutch Postcode Lottery, MAVA Fondation pour la Nature, and Stiftung Drittes Millennium. The authors would also like to thank Franziska Althaus, Juan Vilata, and Covadonga Orejas, for their valuable input on earlier versions of this chapter.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Oceana, Gran Vía, 59, 9th, 28013, Madrid, Spain

    Ricardo Aguilar, Allison L. Perry & Javier López

Authors
  1. Ricardo Aguilar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Allison L. Perry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Javier López
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ricardo Aguilar .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain

    Sergio Rossi

  2. Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, Laboratoire d’Ecogéochimie des Environnements Benthiques (LECOB) Observatoire Océanologique, Banyuls/Mer, France

    Lorenzo Bramanti

  3. Departament d’Ecologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

    Andrea Gori

  4. Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Centro Oceanográfico de Baleares, Palma, Mallorca, Spain

    Covadonga Orejas

Annex

Annex

1.1 Examples of national and international laws and frameworks for the protection of animal forests, as referred to in the text

Name

Geographic area

Webpage

Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission – Helsinki Commission (HELCOM)

Baltic Sea

http://www.helcom.fi/

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean (Barcelona Convention)

Mediterranean Sea

http://web.unep.org/unepmap/

Cartagena Convention

Caribbean Sea

http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention

Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCMLAR)

Area south of the Antarctic Convergence

https://www.ccamlr.org/

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR)

North-east Atlantic Ocean

http://www.ospar.org/

EU Council Regulation (EC) 734/2008 on the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems in the high seas from adverse impacts of bottom fishing gears

High seas beyond national and RFMO jurisdiction

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32008R0734&from=EN

EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive 2008/56/EC

European Union waters

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32008L0056&from=EN

EU Regulation 2016/2336 establishing specific conditions for fishing for deep-sea stocks in the north-east Atlantic and provisions for fishing in international waters of the north-east Atlantic

North-east Atlantic and certain international waters of the Eastern Central Atlantic

https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/better-future-eu-deep-sea_en

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016R2336&from=EN

FAO International Guidelines for the Management of Deep-sea fisheries in the High Seas

Worldwide

ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0816t/i0816t.pdf

General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM)

Mediterranean Sea

http://www.fao.org/gfcm/en/

New Zealand Wildlife Act

New Zealand waters

http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1953/0031/latest/whole.html

North Pacific Fisheries Commission (NPFC)

International waters of the North Pacific Ocean

http://npfc.r-cms.jp/

Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO)

International waters of the North-west Atlantic Ocean

https://www.nafo.int/

North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC)

International waters of the North-east Atlantic Ocean

https://www.neafc.org/

South East Atlantic Fisheries Organization (SEAFO)

International waters of the South-east Atlantic Ocean

http://www.seafo.org/

South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organization (SPRFMO)

International waters of the South Pacific

https://www.sprfmo.int/

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

Worldwide

https://www.cbd.int/

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Worldwide

http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm

United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) Resolution 59/25

Worldwide

https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N04/477/64/PDF/N0447764.pdf?OpenElement

UNGA Resolution 61/105

Worldwide

https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N06/500/73/PDF/N0650073.pdf?OpenElement

UNGA Resolution 64/72

Worldwide

https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N09/466/15/PDF/N0946615.pdf?OpenElement

U.S. Endangered Species Act

USA waters

https://www.fws.gov/endangered/esa-library/pdf/ESAall.pdf

U.S. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act

USA waters

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/management/catch_shares/legislation_history/documents/msa_amended_2007.pdf

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG

About this entry

Cite this entry

Aguilar, R., Perry, A.L., López, J. (2017). Conservation and Management of Vulnerable Marine Benthic Ecosystems. In: Rossi, S., Bramanti, L., Gori, A., Orejas , C. (eds) Marine Animal Forests. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21012-4_34

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation