Clean Energy Technology for the Mitigation of Climate Change: African Traditional Myth

Abstract

The global Anticipated Energy Transition Period (AETP) is one that all stakeholders must embrace with respect to curbing energy poverty, thereby addressing issues related to climate change especially in the sub-Saharan region of Africa. The region is endowed with abundant richer, cleaner, and affordable energy sources, majority of which has remained untapped due to many reasons, one of which is tied to the socio-cultural traditional beliefs and value systems of the citizens. This has forced majority of the inhabitants to continue to rely on the use of non-biodegradable materials for the purpose of cooking and many other activities. This value system, therefore, contributes to have had an adverse effect on the climate and also on the health of the citizens most of whom are women and children residing in rural areas. The outlook on the AETP, their effect on climate change, the use of Clean Energy Technology (CET) domestically, the various strata expected to come with the AETP, the socio-cultural dynamics in terms of acceptability by all (rural, peri-urban, and urban areas) is addressed in this chapter. The chapter concluded by designing a CET model that could assist in planning for the AETP and mitigating climate change.

This chapter was previously published non-open access with exclusive rights reserved by the Publisher. It has been changed retrospectively to open access under a CC BY 4.0 license and the copyright holder is “The Author(s)”. For further details, please see the license information at the end of the chapter.

Introduction

Energy plays a vital role in socioeconomic affairs of people, but it must be available in a desired quality and quantity to be able to meet their needs. Only 290 million people out of the 915 million people in sub-Saharan Africa has access to electricity (IEA 2014; Aboua and Toure 2018). It is equally expected that in the years to come, the population in Africa will grow rapidly, and this may cause a major challenge to the international community due to the slow energy penetration it has received over the years. One of the goals of the appropriate authorities in years to come would be to phase out the use of coal and oil in the market due to their harmful effects on the environment, livestock, and people and then replace them with clean energy for residential, commercial, and industrial uses. According to IRENA (2019), the price of solar PV, solar battery, and solar wind has reduced by 70%, 40%, and 25%, respectively, since 2010, and this is an indication that the Clean Energy Technology (CET) is gradually penetrating the market due to reduction in prices and an improvement in the technology. Generally, energy consumption has direct effects on the role of individuals and communities, whether local, urban, or peri-urban. The idea is that energy contributes to the technological, sociocultural, agricultural, educational, as well as psychological standards in a given settlement; thus, it should be accessible, reliable, affordable, and available when needed. One of the technological penetrations as a result of Anticipated Energy Penetration (AEP) would be the use of Clean Energy Stove (CES) for cooking. Energy comes in different forms from either biomass or biogas. Biomass, as an energy source, has been appreciated by people over the years because it is readily available and appears to be cheap. However, it is anticipated by the United Nations that by the year 2040, electricity should be appreciated by people all over the globe as their first choice of energy. This chapter, therefore, looks at the CET during the pre-AET and post-AET period, their effects, and how they would contribute to the sociocultural dynamics of settlements in sub-Saharan Africa and the sustainability of their environment.

Clean Cooking Energy and Their Challenges

According to WEO (2017), 2.8 billion people across the globe is presently denied access to CET. Majority of them presently reside in Asia and Africa. Similarly, the World Health Organization (WHO) recorded that 7.7% of death rate worldwide is the result of indoor pollution and incomplete combustion; and mostly, women and children are the most vulnerable. One of the contributing factors among others is the inefficient manner in which the solid biomass fuel is used. Furthermore WEO (2017) also affirmed that four out of every five persons in sub-Saharan Africa are yet to appreciate the CET; rather, they prefer the use of solid biomass as fuel, and the effect of this is deforestation, desertization, pollution, erosion, loss of species, global warming, impaired human development, and scarcity of raw materials for other technological purposes. During the AET period, it is expected that solid biomass fuel such as firewood, agricultural residue, coal, animal dung, and generic organic waste would be phased out gradually and replaced with electricity. It is also envisaged that during this period, the choices for other forms of energy other than electricity available across the globe should be reduced drastically because the more the choices are available, the greater the burden in transiting to Clean Cooking Energy (CCE). The advent of the AETP is expected to gradually integrate the CET into the market and this technology  will be geared to address inefficiency in cooking methods while speeding up the rate of clean energy penetration and otherwise. However, for a smooth transition to be recorded, reviews are needed due to availability, adequacy, stagnant growth as well as political reasons. A novel method to CCE should therefore take cognizance of various dimensions and complex nature owing to the stringent measure in eliminating localized ways of cooking. For the locals, this is already a way of life, a doctrine, a culture and a belief system.

Before this transformation, there is the need for moral requirement to properly educate and enlighten the indigenous people to ensure they are able to make informed consent and autonomous decision without any imposition, coercion, manipulation, or persuasion and the people’s autonomy is respected (Faden and Beauchamp 1986; Beauchamp and Childress 1994). Besides, these technologies should be friendlier to the people and their natural environment; they should not make the environment hazardous and uncongenial to the people. They should conform to ethical duty (Desjardins 2006: Rachels 2007) and the utilitarian end (Rachels 2007) of the people and their environment, both at present and in the future. They should not be adopted on the sole aim of profit making and on the motive of instrumentalization of the people and their environment. Relying on the Divine Command Theory of Morality (DCTM), one is prompted to ask whether God would require, permit, or prohibit people being deceived, cajoled, or forced to jettison a way of life that they have been accustomed to and lived by or force them to accept a view and way of life that they may consider inimical to their well-being (Desjardins 2006). Unless these fears are allayed, there is no guarantee, for example, that when the Clean Cooking Stove (CCS) and other new technologies are provided to the locals during the AET period, they would not be stacked. Depending on the temperament of the people, there is the tendency to reject or put up resistance when new ideas and ways of life are introduced to people who already feel secured in their comfort zones, unless adequate care is taken. There is the tendency on trado-cultural ground on the part of traditional rulers or chiefs and traditional doctors to have their meals cooked in special dishes and specified manners or methods and styles, if they are to retain their authorities, powers, efficacies, and sanctities, which may not be amenable to newly introduced alternative technologies. There may also be difficulty of embracing and adapting to new ways of life. Adjustments may cause lots of inconveniences and discomfort to the extent that the people may want to revert to their accustomed and secured styles of living. These may cause some friction in accepting newly introduced technologies.

Another issue of concern is that it pleases the locals to walk some kilometers to gather firewood at no cost rather than trekking some meters to expend their money in buying energy at a high price. Infact, some may not have money to expend in purchasing alternative energy due to their degree of poverty. It would be morally wrong to sway people away and “coerce” them into accepting a way of living they are unaccustomed to without adequate enlightment programme and also without providing them with an affordable, safe, and simple alternative especially, if their previous methods and modes of living are innocuous, that is, it constitutes no harm or danger. In this way, the enforcing government, agency, or any other body fails in their moral duty.

For instance, in Nigeria, cooking in urban and rural areas is actualized by 50% and 99.8% of nonbiodegradable fuels, respectively. The high margin recorded in the rural areas is because they are unable to pay for a neater and cleaner substitute, lack awareness, and lack value systems in addition to the lack of accessibility to such fuels. Another challenge faced by the rural areas is stacking of any technology on the ground that they are scared of operating any electrical gadgets. Although their present technology might look cheap in the interim, other cooking options would be cheaper in the long run (National Energy Policy 2013). If remedial actions are not taken effectively, then the nation’s 15 million hectares of forest according to National Energy Policy (2015) could be depleted within the next 50 years, and the goal of AETP might not be met from the Nigerian perspective.

Also, the nonbiodegradable fuel source in Nigeria contributes about 37% of the total energy demand at a consumption rate of 43.4 * 10⁹ kg of fuelwood annually, making an average of 0.5–1 kg of fuelwood per person on a daily basis. This practice, has therefore encouraged the cutting down of trees, thereby making it a lucrative business owing to the huge and increasing demand of fuelwood, thus making Nigeria one of the largest fuelwood markets in the world (EIA 2014).

The cooking energy demand can therefore be represented mathematically in (1) as presented in NECAL (2015):

$$ CED=\frac{CD}{H_H}\times \sum \limits_{i=1}^n{H}_{H_i} $$

(1)

CED = cooking energy demand, CD = cooking demand, H_H = household.

According to (ECN 2015), 71.9 million hectares of land in Nigeria is fertile, therefore making it a good potential for biofuel production other than fossil fuel. However, with the level of hunger and poverty, low gross domestic product (GDP), etc., it might be difficult to sacrifice the primary sources of biofuels which are actually foodstuff like cassava, sugarcane, soya bean, oil palm, etc. for the purpose of generating clean energy for domestic purposes. Although (Kela et al. 2015) have shown the introduction of CCS which includes clay-based improved stove, energy-saving stove, various solar cookers, double-pot improved stove, etc., their use is still at the experimental stage and therefore requires financial support to increase the level of awareness as well as mass production.

As a way forward, Olaniyan et al. (2018) proposed the use of nonfood crops for the production of bioenergy in some West African countries. However, based on the arable hectares of land in Nigeria and other African countries, another way forward is the genetic modification of certain biofuel plants for the purpose of producing fuel directly for domestic use and for the purpose of cooking. Plants with high calories can also be modified to produce more sugar than expected which can be used for fuel production. From these, excess sugar can actually be picked from the plant for the purpose of fuel production, and domestic use while the other part of the plants continues to remain edible for consumption thereby guaranteeing food security. Other than this, with respect to the AET, the full dependence on electricity for domestic use is also anticipated. In Fig. 1, the stages of AET and CET period are described. In Figs. 2 and 3, the level of merchandising of fuelwood and the use of solid biomass in cooking at restaurants in urban area are presented. From Fig. 3, it is shown that any deviation from this mode of cooking implies that the traditional smoky flavor is absent, hence reducing customers’ patronage in the restaurant.

Fig. 1

Anticipated CCS stages

Fig. 2

Merchandising on fossil fuel in North-West Nigeria

Fig. 3

Commercial cooking with solid biomass

Role of Government During the AET Period

There is a call across the globe for nations to move from “oil-driven economy” to “clean energy economy.” Various changes are expected to be noticeable worldwide during this period with respect to regulations, policies, financing, consumption pattern, and so on. Now, what will be the fate of the individual citizens of those countries whose economy is strongly dependent on oil if the issues that directly affect them, and if what their daily living depend upon, are left at the hands of their decision-makers and the international community? Hence moral rectitude is required in convincing indigenous people. Again, given the abundant resources in their country, would they also transition during the AET period? If yes, at what pace? If no, why? The world is fully aware of the abundant primary sources of energy in Africa which are yet to be harnessed, and there is a call for a carbon-free environment in the nearest future, yet Africa continues to be the largest market for generator dealers across the world due to the high level of unreliability in the electric power sector. Part of the effects of generator use is that it constitutes health hazards to humans and the natural environment. It contributes to acid precipitation, depletion of ozone layers, carbon poisoning, and so on (Airoboman and Tyo 2018).

There is therefore the need for stakeholders across the globe to deliberate on this issue to see how this energy can be managed in the most efficient way so that it can continue to be a means of wealth creation for the nations involved rather than asking or “forcing” them to give up their natural resources and go green. Also, if sustainability is to be recorded, then the number of portable generator sets penetrating the African market must be reduced and replaced with a more eco-friendly one. The role of each respective authority during the period would encompass awareness programs through the use of various advertisements, signs, agencies, and jingles, among others, to inform their citizens on the need to transiting from the use of solid biomass fuels to CET. The appropriate authority is also expected to enlighten its citizens on the cancerous effects that these fuels would cause in the long run and would continue to cause if their use is not abolished or optimized. The distance traveled by women and children to gather firewood contributes to the impairment of human development. Besides, the time wasted in all these processes which could have been valuably geared toward other meaningful engagements is also a call for the appropriate authority to answer. Climate change and depletion of the ozone layer is another strong point that the government is expected to use in convincing its citizens. How well this will sink into the hearts of the people is another cause of worry for the government. Therefore, integration of stakeholders and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) whose job would be to interact and connect with the people one on one; study their beliefs, cultures, and ways of life; and then finally come out with the best and sustainable CET for a given community. It is also expected that electricity tariff should be made very simple and affordable. There should be guarantee by the concerned authority to its citizens that electricity, which is now their first choice of energy, will always be reliable and available when needed. Furthermore, the prices of the CCS should be subsidized and made at various sizes so that even the poorest person in a rural, peri-urban, and urban area can afford them.

The Psychological Myth of Locals

Universal access to energy especially in the local community continues to be a worldwide priority by the year 2030, there is a need to look at how the lack of access to energy has contributed to development impairment and most especially how the CET would be appreciated by locals and the entire citizens of a given country especially in Africa. A key factor to be considered here is that the traditional fire does not only serve as a cooking stove, but it also plays other significant roles such as providing warmth during cold, drying of clay object, preservation of some agricultural product till the next planting season, prevention of weevils from some harvested crops, chasing out of wild animals from a vicinity, heating of the environment during a particular time of the year, a source of light during moonlight stories, waste disposal, drying of clothes, security purposes, and a sign of faith as practiced by some orthodox churches during a certain time of the year. If CET could penetrate the African continent, then it is expected that it should be able to address all these “ways of life” in the simplest manner and with simple technology. Besides, the CET should be cost-effective. The idea behind the use of CCS is simplicity in size and cost. If this is not achieved, various options to fuel available could make the CET objective a herculean task. Furthermore, there are some unique cultural preferences that might be difficult for locals to give up, and one of such examples is the traditional smoky flavor on meals prepared. The locals believed strongly that such flavors and taste could only be gotten through the use of fuelwoods and coal, and as such, the use of CCS could change the taste of their food. Even the rich often times visits small canteens where the source of energy used is firewood in order to get that traditional smoky flavor which makes their food sweet rather than visiting big restaurants whose source of energy is mostly microwaves because of the fear of radiation that causes cancer. The irony that the locals prefer to prepare their food using the traditional firewood because of its “simplicity” rather than using any other sources such as modern energy stoves because of their “complex nature” is also a call for concern and worry.

Simplicity for them is a priority and it comes before availability. Another issue of concern is that it pleases the locals to walk some kilometers to gather firewood free of charge rather than trekking some meters to expend their money in buying energy at a high price. In addition, some may not have this money to expend at all to purchase alternative energy due to their degree of poverty. Despite this “way of life” (which we may call archaic and uncivilized in the modern times), it is on record that people in villages live longer than people in the city. Hence, selling a technology from the city to the villages requires stringent measures. It would be immoral to impose, coerce, or deceive the locals to accept a method or an alternative way of life without informed consent, free choice, or adequate enlightenment, including relevant and adequate knowledge about the benefits and harms of the technology to be introduced. Concerning what makes an issue moral, Barcalow (1994) argued among others that the choices people make about such issues affect their well-being and the well-being of others; and such well-being may be physical or psychological. Such actions should also be capable of causing benefit or harm. It would also be a moral dilemma for those knowledgeable or well informed about the actual and potential hazards of the habits and practices of a people to allow them to continue in those habits whether or not it directly affects them, when they are unwilling to change.

A Look at Environmental Ethics

The heavy burden imposed on nature in recent times because of various activities by humans, it is now impossible for nature to regenerate itself the way it used to. Environmental ethics could therefore be put forward as one of the ways of tackling environmental issues and simultaneously meeting human needs. According to Omonzejele et al. (2017), every culture possesses certain notion of what is good and bad and what “ought” and “ought not” to be done. Therefore, the bad aspects of using fossil fuel plants for the purpose of heating, cooking, drying, security, etc. by rural areas may be left hanging as it is already a value system and a way of life; hence, all they see is the “good” aspect of using fossil fuel as the word “bad” may sound offensive because of what it projects and represents. The rural dwellers are of the opinion that the human life has value. Then, if prevented to sufficiently interact with its environment, it may be tantamount to saying the value of the non-human life is superior to the human life, and this could negate their traditional and cultural doctrines of Anthropocentrism. Therefore, a point of alignment between the non-human life and the human life needs to be defined to address these stringent issues with respect to educating the rural dwellers especially on the doctrine of Sentientism which opined that an element of consideration should be afforded to the non-human life. Also, the doctrine of Biocentrism strongly stated that all life is sacred! In this sense, the human life must refrain from cutting branches from trees for any purpose. The doctrine of Ecocentrism also asserts that nature is the center for the existence of human life upon which this life is parasitic. In Airoboman (2017), one of the reasons for environmental concern is to curb issues and proffer solutions on issues relating to climate change. The author stressed that development is a function of the level of interaction with the environment. However, with the present climate change challenges, one may ask if the gain as a result of development is worth the trouble posed by the climate? If yes, should the underdeveloped nation aspire to develop or remain static developmentally because of possible fear of climate-related issues? These questions are begging for answers. Therefore, environmental ethics should be included in high school and colleges curricula in order for all parties involved to be guided accordingly.

In Fig. 4, the occupant of the apartment uses LPG for cooking. However, the color of the ceiling shows otherwise, and this may be a result of the inefficient way the LPG was used, thereby constituting environmental challenges as well health challenges especially to the occupant of the apartment. CET should not just be about the use of clean energy but also of the way(s) it is used with respect to each environment. As a means of addressing the myth behind cooking using the CET, the authority concerned would have to convince the masses that:

• 1. The technology behind CCS would be very simple such that it would be easy to operate.

• 2. It is not time consuming because the energy required would always be available rather than traveling longer distances to fetch firewood.

• 3. Maintenance of the CCS would also be made very simple and available.

• 4. The locals would be involved directly in the maintenance, thereby creating jobs for them.

• 5. It is the presence of carbon black that affects visibility. Hence, there should be a paradigm shift.

• 6. There are negative impacts on the method they have been accustomed to have on the natural environment.

• 7. There are actual and potential hazards, which impact the human beings, future generations, and general ecosystem.

Fig. 4

A polluted kitchen

In addition to the above, there is also a need by the authority concerned to introduce CCS designed to give that traditional smoky flavor in food, as well as addressing the fear in operating CCS because of its “complexity” and fire hazards.

The Way Forward

As the world continues to strive in meeting its objectives regarding universal access to energy and CET, there is a need to deplore methods to be followed in order for these objectives to be met. In Fig. 5, a model which incorporates planning, policy making, regulations, health, and safety and standards is proposed. In this scenario, analysis is done at various levels to get a master plan for CET in the near future.

• 1. The planning level involves various coordinated policies and strategies to be adopted for a smooth AET.

• 2. The policy level should incorporate the drafting and implementations of policies.

• 3. At the regulation phase, it is expected that suitable regulation standards both technical and economical are taken into cognizance. The direct involvement of government is expected here because it has to protect the consumers’ right and ensure that any tariff adopted must be simple and cost-effective.

• 4. Health and environment protection agency regulates the impact of the technology on the health and safety of the environment as well as the personnel.

• 5. At the standard phase, regulations such as conformity to WHO standards should be enforced. It should be noted that it is not only laboratory test that is required here; other regulations that will ensure sustainability through availability of spare parts and maintenance must be taken into cognizance.

• 6. The CET room investigates the report from various agencies, regulators, and policy makers to see the potentiality of the CET penetration in a given area, and when satisfied, they move to the next phase as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 5

CET policies and regulatory phase

Fig. 6

CET implementation stage

The second stage of the model comprises the financing, the business models to be adopted and finally the implementation.

• 1. At the financing phase, it is expected that there is enough fund to support investors, willing to go into the CET business. There should also be a body under the CET that manages and gives out funds to potential investors. There could also be a Public Private Partnership that allows these investors to build, operate and transfer the technology at the required time.

• 2. Furthermore, it is expected that stakeholders in the sector will have to meet and develop business models that favor a given region with respect to the natural resources available in that region.

• 3. Since the goal of every business is to get return on investment, it is expected that this phase should be time consuming owing to various scenarios analysis and feasibility study needed to ensure a very simple but affordable tariff expected by potentials customers. When all this is put in place, the implementation stage comes to fore. This involves the coordination and supervisory roles needed during installation of CET within a given area. Such supervisory role should be handled by an expert in the field who will ensure that all equipment deploy to the field conform to appropriate standard, pass the LAB tests and also meets the WHO requirements.

Conclusion

In this chapter the injustices that lack of energy access has caused globally and especially in sub-Saharan Africa is highlighted. Energy poverty has slowed down technological infrastructure and has led to a slow economic growth rate. As the world is expected to transition to renewables and CET in the nearest future, it is expected that there would be a swift shift from the use of solid biomass fuel to electricity. Therefore, there is a need for Africans and especially sub-Saharan African to start preparation for the AET in earnest in order not to be caught in the web of uncertainty. With proper preparation, good policies, regulations, proper planning, nice business models can be put in place in the African continent because Africa has been designed to rule the world in the nearest future. Hence we must get our technology right; and in doing this, there must be a universal access to energy especially to women and children. The study also concurrently looks at some socio-cultural and economic impediments that may have impeded this goal, as well as some moral issues involved and attempt to address them.