Skip to main content

Citizen Science

A Path to Democratic and Sociopolitically Conscious Science

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Theory and Research in Cultural Studies and Education

Abstract

In this chapter we explore the idea of citizen science in science education and its value in broadening student science participation, building greater science engagement, and expanding the usefulness of science in broader life events and actions. The focus of the chapter is to explore how citizen science provides a space and context for teachers and students to engage in science content and activities that bring greater personal and community meanings in learning and doing science. The chapter seeks to explore the following questions framed by critical pedagogy and critical theories: What is citizen science and how does it raise critical consciousness in students from underrepresented groups? How is citizen science a space for equitable science teaching and learning space for all students? In what ways does citizen help students make sense of science learning and provides a context to challenge the dominant view of learning and doing science? How does citizen science make doing science a democratic practice for sociopolitical consciousness? As we answer these questions, we draw from critical theories and pedagogies where sociocultural contexts take a central space in understanding affordances of citizen science as a sociopolitical consciousness raising framework for teaching and learning.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adams, J. D. (2012). Community science: Capitalizing on local ways of enacting science in science education. In B. Fraser, K. Tobin, & C. McRobbie (Eds.), Second international handbook of science education (pp. 1163–1177). Rotterdam: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, J. D., Gupta, P., & DeFelice, A. (2012). Schools and informal science settings: Collaborate, co-exist, or assimilate? Cultural Studies of Science Education, 7, 409–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (1989). Science for all Americans. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, D. P. (2004). Public computing: Reconnecting people to science. Retrieved December, 2018, from http://www.apisindustries.com/Seti/boinc2.pdf

  • Apple, M. W. (1993). The politics of official knowledge: Does a national curriculum make sense. Teachers College Record, 95, 222–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apple, M. (1995). Education and power (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apple MW (2006) Ideology and curriculum. Routledge, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Apple, M. (2009). Global crises, social justice and education. New York: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Banks JA (2008) Diversity, group identity, and citizenship education in a global age. Educational Researcher 37:129–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benhabib, S. (1996). Toward a deliberative model of democratic legitimacy. In S. Benhabib (Ed.), Democracy and difference: Contesting the boundaries of the political (pp. 67–94). Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonney, R. (1996). Citizen science: A lab tradition. Living Bird, 15, 7–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonney, R., Ballard, H., Jordan, R., McCallie, E., Phillips, T., Shirk, J., & Wilderman, C. (2009). Public participation in scientific research: Defining the field and assessing its potential for informal science education. Washington, DC: Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education (CAISE). Retrieved December, 2018, from http://www.informalscience.org/images/research/PublicParticipationinScientificResearch.pdf

  • Bonney R, Cooper CB, Dickinson J, Kelling S, Phillips T, Rosenberg KV, Shirk J (2009b) Citizen science: A developing tool for expanding science knowledge and scientific literacy. BioScience 59:977–984

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonney, R., Shirk, J. L., Phillips, T. B., Wiggins, A., Ballard, H. L., Miller-Rushing, A. J., & Parrish, J. K. (2014). Next steps for citizen science. Science, 343, 1436–1437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonney R, Phillips TB, Ballard HL, Enck JW (2015) Can citizen science enhance public understanding of science? Public Understanding of Science 25:2–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonney, R., Phillips, T. B., Ballard, H. L., & Enck, J. W. (2016). Can citizen science enhance public understanding of science? Public Understanding of Science, 25, 2–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brossard, D., Lewenstein, B., & Bonney, R. (2005). Scientific knowledge and attitude change: The impact of a citizen science project. International Journal of Science Education, 27, 1099–1121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brzeski, K., Gunther, M. S., & Black, J. M. (2013). Evaluating river otter demography using noninvasive genetic methods. The Wildlife Society, 77, 1523–1531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan, J., & Tullock, G. (1965). The Calculus of consent: Logical foundations of constitutional democracy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, D., Froehlich, S., Theobald, E., … Parrish. (2017). The science of citizen science: Exploring barriers to use as a primary research tool. Biological Conservation, 208, 113–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calabrese Barton, A. M. (2012). Citizen(s’) science a response to “the future of citizen science”. Democracy & Education, 20, Article 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary and Thesaurus. (2018). Retrieved December, 2018, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/citizen-science

  • Ceci, S. J., Ginther, D. K., Kahn, S., & Williams, W. M. (2014). Women in academic science: A changing landscape. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 15, 75–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1997). Deliberation and democratic legitimacy. In J. Bohman & W. Rehg (Eds.), Deliberative democracy: Essays on reason and politics (pp. 67–91). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard, C. C., & Hilchey, K. G. (2011). A review of citizen science and community-based environmental monitoring: Issues and opportunities. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 176, 273–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, S. (2011). A framework for scientific discovery through video games. Doctor of Philosophy, University of Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, F. (2002). Theories of democracy: A critical introduction. New York: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, R. (1959). A preface to democratic theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, E., & Jensen, E. (2011). Towards a contextual turn in visitor studies: Evaluating visitor segmentation and identity-related motivations. Visitor Studies, 14, 127–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dewey, J. (1927). The public and its problems. Denver: Alan Swallow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eaton, D. P., Keuroghlian, A., Santos, M. d. C. A., Desbiez, A. L. J., & Sada, D. W. (2017). Citizen scientists help unravel the nature of cattle impacts on native mammals and birds visiting fruiting trees in Brazil’s southern Pantanal. Biological Conservation, 208, 29–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eiben, C. B., Siegel, J. B., Bale, J. B., Cooper, S., Khatib, F., Shen, B. W., … & Baker, D. (2012). Increased diels-alderase activity through backbone remodelling guided by Foldit players. Nature Biotechnology, 30, 190–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eiffert, S., Noibi, Y., Vesper, S., Downs, J., Fulk, F., Wallace, J., et al. (2016). A citizen-science study documents environmental exposures and asthma prevalence in two communities. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eitzel, M.V., Cappadonna, J.L., Santos-Lang, C., Duerr, R.E., Virapongse, A., West, S.E., … & Jiang, Q. (2017). Citizen science terminology matters: Exploring key terms. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice, 2(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.5334/cstp.96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, J. B., Kelly, M., & Romm, J. (2006). Scales of environmental justice: Combining GIS and spatial analysis for air toxics in West Oakland, California. Health & Place, 12, 701–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, M., Kenyon, L. O., Kenyon, L., & Upadhyay, B. (2015). Democratic science: Engaging middle school students in meaningful practices through community engagement. Education in Democracy, 7, 37–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freire P (1990) Pedagogy of the oppressed. Penguin, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Friere, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giroux, H. (1992). Border crossings. Cultural workers and the politics of education. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gramsci, A. (1971). Prison notebooks. New York: International Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, M. (1986). In search of a critical pedagogy. Harvard Educational Review, 27, 427–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gruenewald, D. A., & Smith, G. A. (2008). Making room for the local. In D. A. Gruenewald & G. A. Smith (Eds.), Place-based education in the global age (pp. 137–153). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurian, E. H. (2005). Threshold fear. In S. Macleod (Ed.), Reshaping museum space (pp. 203–213). Oxford: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J. (1996). Three normative models of democracy. In S. Benhabib (Ed.), Democracy and difference: Contesting the boundaries of the political (pp. 21–30). Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haklay M (2013) Citizen science and volunteered geographic information: Overview and typology of participation. In: Sui D, Elwood S, Goodchild M (eds) Crowdsourcing geographic knowledge. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 105–122

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hochachka, W. M., Fink, D., Hutchinson, R. A., Sheldon, D., Wong, W. K., & Kelling, S. (2012). Data-intensive science applied to broad-scale citizen science. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 27, 130–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howe J (2006) The rise of crowdsourcing. Wired 14 Retrieved from http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.06/crowds.html

  • hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hursh, D. (2007). Assessing no child left behind and the rise of neoliberal education policies. American Educational Research Journal, 44, 493–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irwin, A. (1995). Citizen science: A study of people, expertise, and sustainable development. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, R. C., Gray, S. A., Howe, D. V., Brooks, W. R., & Ehrenfeld, J. G. (2011). Knowledge gain and behavioral change in citizen-science programs: Citizen-scientist knowledge gain. Conservation Biology, 256, 1148–1154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keane, J. (2009). The life and death of democracy. London: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kissling MT, Calabrese Barton A (2013) Interdisciplinary study of the local power plant: Cultivating ecological citizens. Social Studies Research and Practice 8, 128–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladson-Billings G (1994) The dreamkeepers. Jossey-Bass Publishing Co., San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladson-Billings, G. (1995a). But that’s just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory Into Practice, 34, 159–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ladson-Billings, G. (1995b). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 465–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). Yes, but how do we do it? Practicing culturally relevant pedagogy. In J. Landsman & C. W. Lewis (Eds.), White teachers/diverse classrooms: A guide to building inclusive schools, promoting high expectations, and eliminating racism (pp. 29–42). Sterling: Stylus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladson-Billings, G. (2014). Culturally relevant pedagogy 2.0:a.k.a. the remix. Harvard Educational Review, 84, 74–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, G. A., & Hoody, L. L. (1998). Closing the achievement gap: Using the environment as an integrating context for learning (Results of a Nationwide Study). Poway, CA: Science Wizards. Retrieved from http://www.seer.org/extras/execsum.pdf

  • Lim, M., Tan, E., & Calabrese Barton, A. (2013). Science learning as participation with and in a place.  In J. Bianchini, V. Akerson, A. Calabrese Barton, O. Lee, and A. Rodriguez (Eds.) Moving the Equity Agenda Forward: Equity Research, Practice, and Policy in Science Education (pp. 191-209). Rotterdam: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippmann, W. (1993). The phantom public. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lukacs, P. M., & Burnham, K. P. (2005). Review of capture-recapture methods applicable to noninvasive genetic sampling. Molecular Ecology, 14(13), 3909–3919.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maruyama, G., Jones, R., Adams, M., & Upadhyay, B. (2014). Including communities in urban university-school partnerships. Scholar-Practitioner Quarterly, 7, 364–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaren, P. (1995). Critical pedagogy and predatory culture, oppositional politics in a postmodern era. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaren, P. (2005). Critical pedagogy and class struggle in the age of neoliberal globalization: Notes from history’s underside. International Journal of Inclusive Democracy, 2, 1–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller MP, Tippins DJ (2012) Citizen science, ecojustice, and science education: Rethinking an education from nowhere. In: Fraser B, Tobin K, McRobbie C (eds) Second international handbook of science education. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 865–882

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, M. P., Tippins, D., & Lynn, B. (2012). The future of citizen science. Democracy and Education, 20, 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Academy of Sciences (NAS). (2010). Rising above the gathering storm, revisited: Rapidly approaching category 5. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Audubon Society (2018). Retrieved December, 2018, from https://www.audubon.org/

  • National Biodiversity Network [NBN]. (2018). NBN atlas. Retrieved December, 2018, from https://nbnatlas.org/

  • Ottinger, G. (2010). Buckets of resistance: Standards and the effectiveness of citizen science. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 35, 244–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paetkau, D. (2005). The optimal number of markers in genetic capture – Mark – Recapture studies. Journal of Wildlife Management, 68, 449–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pateman, C. (1970). Participation and democratic theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Pierotti, R. (2011). Indigenous knowledge, ecology, and evolutionary biology. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plunk, A. D., Tate, W. F., Bierut, L. J., & Grucza, R. A. (2014). Intended and unintended effects of state-mandated high school science and mathematics course graduation requirements on educational attainment. Educational Researcher, 43, 230–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pocock, M. J. O., Chapman, D. S., Sheppard, L. J., & Roy, H. E. (2014). A strategic framework to support the implementation of citizen science for environmental monitoring. Final report to Scottish Environmental Protection Agency. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, Oxfordshire. http://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/publications/understanding-citizen-science.html

  • Powers, A. L. (2004). An evaluation of four place-based education programs. The Journal of Environmental Education, 35, 17–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pradel, R. (1996). Utilization of capture-mark-recapture for the study of recruitment and population growth rate. Biometrics, 52, 703–709.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, R. (1993). Making democracy work: Civic traditions in modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raddick, J., Bracey, G., Gay, P. L., Lintott, C. J., Murray, P., Schawinski, K., … & Vandenberg, J. (2010). Galaxy Zoo: Exploring the motivations of citizen science volunteers. Astronomy Education Review, 9, 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raddick, M. J., Bracey, G., Gay, P. L., Lintott, C. J., Cardamone, C., Murray, P., … Vandenberg, J. (2013). Galaxy Zoo: Motivations of citizen scientists. Astronomy Education Review, 12, np. Retrieved from https://access.portico.org/stable?au=pgg3ztfcv7h

  • Reed, J., Raddick, J., Lardner, A., & Carney, K. (2013). An exploratory factor analysis ofmotivations for participating in Zooniverse, a collection of virtual citizen science projects. In Proceedings of the 46th Annual Hawaii international conference on systems sciences (pp. 7–11).

    Google Scholar 

  • Riesch H, Potter C (2013) Citizen science as seen by scientists: Methodological, epistemological and ethical dimensions. Public Understanding of Science 23:107–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riesch, H., & Potter, C. (2014). Citizen science as seen by scientists: Methodological, epistemological and ethical dimensions. Public Understanding of Science, 23, 107–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz-Mallén, I., Riboli-Sasco, L., Ribrault, C., Heras, M., Laguna, D., & Perié, L. (2016). Citizen science: Toward transformative learning. Science Communication, 38, 523–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan RM, Deci EL (2009) Promoting self-determined school engagement: Motivation, learning and well-being. In: Wentzel KR, Wigfield A (eds) Handbook of motivation at school. Routledge, New York, pp 171–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumpeter, J. (1962 [1942]). Capitalism, socialism and democracy, New York: Harper and Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seider, S., et al. (2017). Developing sociopolitical consciousness of race and social class inequality in adolescents attending progressive and no excuses urban secondary schools. Applied Developmental Science, 22, 169–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SETI@Home. (2006). SETI@home poll results. Retrieved December, 2018, from http://boinc.berkeley.edu/slides/xerox/polls.html

  • Shirk J, Bonney R (2015) Citizen science framework review: Informing a framework for citizen science within the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Ithaca, Cornell Lab of Ornithology

    Google Scholar 

  • Shirk, J., Ballard, H., Wilderman, C., Phillips, T., Wiggins, A., Jordan, R., et al. (2012). Public participation in scientific research: A framework for deliberate design. Ecology and Society, 17, 29–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silvertown, J. (2009). A new dawn for citizen science. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 24(9), 467–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, N. (2012). Come on in and make yourself uncomfortable. Museum 2.0 [Online]. Retrieved October, 2018, from http://museumtwo.blogspot.co.uk/2012/02/come-on-in-andmake-yourself.html

  • Sleeter, C. E. (2012). Confronting the marginalization of culturally responsive pedagogy. Urban Education, 47, 562–584.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. A. (2002). Place-based education: Learning to be where we are. Phi delta kappan, 83, 584–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. A., & Sobel, D. (2010). Place- and community-based education in schools. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snik, F., Rietjens, J. H., Apituley, A., Volten, H., Mijling, B., Di Noia, A., et al. (2014). Mapping atmospheric aerosols with a citizen science network of smartphone spectropolarimeters. Geophysical Research Letters, 41, 7351–7358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sultana, P., & Abeyasekera, S. (2008). Effectiveness of participatory planning for community management of fisheries in Bangladesh. Journal of Environmental Management, 86, 201–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Switzer, C. (2014). Middle school: Using place-based inquiry to inspire and motivate future scientists. Science Scope, 37, 50–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szostkowski, A. & Upadhyay, B. (2019). Looking forward by looking back: Equity in science education as a socially just and morally healing act. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 14, 335–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Annie E. Casey Foundation (2014) Race for results: Building a path to opportunity for all children (KIDS COUNT Policy Report). Author, Baltimore Retrieved from www.aecf.org/race4results

    Google Scholar 

  • Theobald, E. J., Ettinger, A. K., Burgess, H. K., DeBey, L. B., Schmidt, N. R., Froehlich, H. E., …, Parrish, J. K. (2015). Global change and local solutions: Tapping the unrealized potential of citizen science for biodiversity research. Biological Conservation, 181, 236–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trautmann, N. M., Fee, J., Tomasek, T. M., & Bergey, N. R. (2013). Citizen science: 15 lessons that bring biology to life, 6–12. Washington, DC: NSTA Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tulloch, A. I., Possingham, H. P., Joseph, L. N., Szabo, J., & Martin, T. G. (2013). Realising the full potential of citizen science monitoring programs. Biological Conservation, 165, 128–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Upadhyay, B., & Albrecht, N. (2011). Deliberative democracy in an urban elementary science classroom. In S. Basu, A. Calabrese Barton, & E. Tan (Eds.), Building the expertise to empower low-income minority youth in science (pp. 75–83). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Upadhyay, B., Maruyama, G., & Albrecht, N. (2017). Taking an active stance: How urban elementary students connect sociocultural experiences in learning science. International Journal of Science Education, 39, 2528–2547.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Upadhyay B, Chaudhary MT, Gautam D, Tharu B (2018) Maghi: A case study of indigenous Tharu cultural heritage for democratic practice and STEM education in Nepal. In: Liljeblad J, Verschuuren B (eds) Indigenous perspectives on sacred natural sites: Culture, governance and conservation. Routledge, London, pp 136–151

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Upadhyay, B., Chaudhary, B. T., Gautam, D., & Tharu, B. (2019). Maghi: A case study of indigenous Tharu cultural heritage for democratic practice and STEM education in Nepal. In J. Liljeblad & B. Verschuuren (Eds.), Indigenous perspectives on sacred natural sites: Culture, governance and conservation (pp. 136–151). Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, M. (2012). Schools/citizen science a response to “the future of citizen science”. Democracy & Education, 20, 1–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, M. (2016). Critiquing and transcending STEM. Journal for Activist Science and Technology Education, 7, 63–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiggins, A., & Crowston, K. (2011). From conservation to crowdsourcing: A typology of citizen science. In System sciences (HICSS), 2011 44th Hawaii international conference on (pp. 1–10). IEEE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiggins A, Crowston K (2015) Surveying the citizen science landscape. First Monday 20(1) Retrieved from https://firstmonday.org/article/view/5520/4194

  • World Community Grid. (2013). Member study: Findings and next steps. Retrieved November, 2018, from http://www.worldcommunitygrid.org/about_us/viewNewsArticle.do?articleId=323

  • Young, I. (1990). Justice and the politics of difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zooniverse. (2018). Galaxy Zoo. Retrieved December, 2018, from https://www.zooniverse.org

Download references

Acknowledgement

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. #1737633. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bhaskar Upadhyay .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Oesterle, J., Upadhyay, B., Brown, J.C., Vernon, M. (2019). Citizen Science. In: Trifonas, P. (eds) Handbook of Theory and Research in Cultural Studies and Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01426-1_28-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01426-1_28-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-01426-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-01426-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference EducationReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Education

Publish with us

Policies and ethics