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Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology pp 1–33Cite as

Marine and Freshwater Fecal Indicators and Source Identification

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Fecal Indicator Definition

Fecal indicators are organisms or chemical constituents found in fecal material or wastewater that can be measured to demonstrate the presence of fecal pollution. Fecal waste from humans and other animals can contaminate surface waters and pose a serious threat to the environment and human health. Fecal pollution serves as a vehicle for disease transmission including pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or protozoa. Fecal waste also carries with it harmless commensalorganisms that live in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are often used as fecal indicators since they are present in high numbers. The type and amount of pathogens found in fecal pollution is dependent on the host source (human, agricultural animal, wildlife) and the prevalence of illness in the host population. Therefore, employing fecal indicators that provide information about human and other animal contributions is critical for estimating the likelihood that pathogens are present and for...

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Abbreviations

Alternative fecal indicators:

Fecal indicators that have not been fully validated for standard water quality methods but show potential for increased sensitivity or specificity over current indicators.

Commensal:

The general meaning of this word is the sharing of food and originates from the Latin word cum mensa, meaning “sharing a table.” In the context of bacteria and host interactions, the bacteria benefit from the host without causing harm.

Enterococci:

The term “enterococci” is a general reference to members of the genus Enterococcus; however, in the context of water quality standards, enterococci often refer to E. faecalis and E. faecium, which can be enumerated using selective and differential media.

Escherichia coli (E. coli):

Gram-negative bacteria found in the gastrointestinal tract of almost all warm-blooded animals. These bacteria are easily cultured and can be enumerated using selective and differential media.

Fecal indicator:

A chemical or biological constituent that is found in fecal matter that can be used to demonstrate the presence of contamination.

Pathogen:

A microbe or microorganism such as a bacteria, virus, fungi, prion, or protozoan that causes disease in its animal or plant host.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR):

A scientific technique in molecular biology to amplify a single or few gene copies of a nucleic acid fragment across several orders of magnitude. Amplification results in the generation of thousands to millions of copies of a particular nucleic acid sequence.

Quantitative PCR:

A technique based on PCR which simultaneously amplifies and quantifies a targeted nucleic acid molecule.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Dr. Alford Dufour for the insightful discussion and for providing historical information on the use of traditional indicators and evolution of water quality criteria. The US Environmental Protection Agency, through its Office of Research and Development, funded and managed, or partially funded and collaborated in, the research described herein. It has been subjected to the agency’s peer and administrative review and has been approved for external publication. Any opinions expressed in this entry are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the agency; therefore, no official endorsement should be inferred. Any mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Freshwater Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA

    Sandra L. McLellan

  2. Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA

    Alexandria B. Boehm

  3. National Risk Management Research Laboratory, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA

    Orin C. Shanks

Authors
  1. Sandra L. McLellan
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  2. Alexandria B. Boehm
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  3. Orin C. Shanks
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Correspondence to Sandra L. McLellan .

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  1. Ramtech Ltd., Larkspur, California, USA

    Robert A. Meyers

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McLellan, S.L., Boehm, A.B., Shanks, O.C. (2014). Marine and Freshwater Fecal Indicators and Source Identification. In: Meyers, R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2493-6_828-3

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