Definition
Pediatric HIV disease is due to infection with human immunodeficiency virus-1. The first pediatric cases were identified in the early 1980s (Lindegren et al. 2000). Almost all transmission of HIV-1 to infants and young children occur through mother to child transmission of HIV with a smaller number of cases related to blood product transfusion, injections with contaminated needles, or sexual abuse (Lindegren et al. 2000). Among newly infected adolescents, transmission most commonly occurs through sexual transmission (Idele et al. 2014).
Introduction
The global HIV/AIDS epidemic has left a heavy toll since the HIV-1 virus was first identified in the early 1980s with over 39 million deaths reported due to HIV/AIDS-related causes. Important segment of this intergenerational pandemic are HIV-infected infants and children less than 15 years of age and young persons between 15 and 24 years of age. As of 2013, there were an estimated 35 million persons living infected with...
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
Barker PM, Mate K. Eliminating mother-to-child HIV transmission will require major improvements in maternal and child health services. Health Aff (Millwood). 2012;31(7):1489–97.
Busza J, et al. Injecting behaviour and service use among young injectors in Albania, Moldova, Romania and Serbia. Int J Drug Policy. 2013;24(5):423–31.
CDC National center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD & TB Prevention. Division of HIV/AIDS prevention: HIV surveillance adolescents and young adults slide set. 2013. Last Accessed 28 Apr 2015.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Surveillance Report, 2011; Vol. 23. 2014. http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/surveillance/resources/reports
Chakanyuka-Musanhu CPM, Apollo T, Dzangare J, Mtapuri-Zinyowera S, Mugurungi O, Martin E, Jordan M, Perriens J, Bertagnolio S. World Health Organization HIV drug resistance surveillance in children less than 18 months newly diagnosed with HIV in Zimbabwe. In: IAS. Kuala Lumpur. 2013.
Chatterjee A, et al. Implementing services for early infant diagnosis (EID) of HIV: a comparative descriptive analysis of national programs in four countries. BMC Public Health. 2011;11:553.
Chiappini E, et al. Five-year follow-up of children with perinatal HIV-1 infection receiving early highly active antiretroviral therapy. BMC Infect Dis. 2009;9:140.
Ciaranello AL, et al. Early infant HIV-1 diagnosis programs in resource-limited settings: opportunities for improved outcomes and more cost-effective interventions. BMC Med. 2011;9:59.
DeCock KM, Fowler MG, Mercier E, de Vincenzi I, Saba J, Hoff E, Alnwick DJ, Rogers M, Shaffer N. Prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission in resource-poor countries: translating research into policy and practice. JAMA. 2000;283:1175–82.
Epidemiology, T.B.o.E. HIV serological surveillance report: 2011. Thailand: Thailand Bureau of Epidemiology; 2012.
Fenner L, et al. Early mortality and loss to follow-up in HIV-infected children starting antiretroviral therapy in Southern Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;54(5):524–32.
Ghadrshenas A, et al. Improved access to early infant diagnosis is a critical part of a child-centric prevention of mother-to-child transmission agenda. AIDS. 2013;27 Suppl 2:S197–205.
Gillespie SL, Paula ME, Armsby C. UpToDate: www.uptodate.com. 2015: Epidemiology of pediatric HIV infection. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology-of-pediatric -hiv-infection. Last Accessed 21 Apr 2015.
Goetghebuer T, et al. Short- and long-term immunological and virological outcome in HIV-infected infants according to the age at antiretroviral treatment initiation. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(6):878–81.
Hazra R, et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and an optimized background regimen of antiretroviral agents as salvage therapy for pediatric HIV infection. Pediatrics. 2005;116(6):e846–54.
Idele P, et al. Epidemiology of HIV and AIDS among adolescents: current status, inequities, and data gaps. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;66 Suppl 2:S144–S153.
Jani IV, et al. Accurate early infant HIV diagnosis in primary health clinics using a point-of-care nucleic acid test. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;67(1):e1–4.
Kelly RJ, et al. Age differences in sexual partners and risk of HIV-1 infection in rural Uganda. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;32(4):446–51.
Lindegren M, Steinberg S, Byers RH, Jr. Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in Children. Ped Clinic North Am. 2000; 47: 1–20.
Lowenthal ED, et al. Perinatally acquired HIV infection in adolescents from sub-Saharan Africa: a review of emerging challenges. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:627.
Marcos Y, Phelps BR, Bachman G. Community strategies that improve care and retention along the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV cascade: a review. J Int AIDS Soc. 2012;15 Suppl 2:17394.
Massavon W, et al. Factors determining survival and retention among HIV-infected children and adolescents in a community home-based care and a facility-based family-centred approach in Kampala, Uganda: a cohort study. ISRN AIDS. 2014;2014:852489.
Nachega JB, et al. Antiretroviral therapy adherence, virologic and immunologic outcomes in adolescents compared with adults in southern Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;51(1):65–71.
Newell ML, et al. Mortality of infected and uninfected infants born to HIV-infected mothers in Africa: a pooled analysis. Lancet. 2004;364(9441):1236–43.
Okomo U, et al. Mortality and loss to programme before antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected children eligible for treatment in The Gambia, West Africa. AIDS Res Ther. 2012;9(1):28.
Palumbo P, et al. Antiretroviral treatment for children with peripartum nevirapine exposure. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(16):1510–20.
Panel on antiretroviral therapy and medical management of HIV-infected children. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. [cited 2015 April 17]. Available from: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov.guidelines
Paredes R, et al. Impact of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant women and their children in Africa: HIV resistance and treatment outcomes. J Infect Dis. 2013;207 Suppl 2:S93–100.
Penazzato M, et al. Programmatic impact of the evolution of WHO pediatric antiretroviral treatment guidelines for resource-limited countries (Tukula Fenna Project, Uganda). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61(4):522–5.
Persaud D, Gay H, Ziemniak C, et al. Absence of detectable HIV-1 Viremia after treatment cessation in an infant. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1828–35.
Prendergast AJ, Essajee S, Penazzato M. HIV and the millennium development goals. Arch Dis Child. 2015;100 Suppl 1:S48–52.
Purdy JB, et al. Decreased bone mineral density with off-label use of tenofovir in children and adolescents infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatr. 2008;152(4):582–4.
Shubber Z, et al. Adverse events associated with nevirapine and efavirenz-based first-line antiretroviral therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2013;27(9):1403–12.
(UBOS), U.B.o.S. Macro international Inc AIDS indicator survey, 2011. 2011 [cited].
UNAIDS. Global report: UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic 2013. Geneva. 2013.
UNAIDS. GAP report. 2014a. Available at www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2014/name,97466,en.asp
UNAIDS. Global AIDS response progress reporting. 2014b [cited 2015 Apr 17]. Available from: http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/GARPR_2014_guidelines_en_0.pdf
UNAIDS. 2014 progress report on the global plan towards the elimination of new infections among children by 2015 nd keeping their mothers alive. 2014c 17 [cited 2015 Apr 17]. Available from: http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/documents/JC2681_2014-Global-Plan-progress_en.pdf
UNAIDS. Ensuring that adolescents living with HIV are not left behind. UNAIDS; 2014d [cited 2015 May 02]. Available from: http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2014/april/20140430adolescents
UNAIDS. Access to Antiretorviral therapy in Africa. [cited 2015 May 02]. Available from: http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/20131219_AccessARTAfricaStatusReportProgresstowards2015Targets_en_0.pdf
UNICEF. The double dividend. A synthesis of action to improve the survival of HIV-‘exposed’ children in the Era of eMTCT and renewed child survival campaigns. 2013a. Geneva: UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/aids/files/Double_Dividend_Synthesis_report_Final.pdf
UNICEF. UNICEF Analysis of UNAIDS 2012 and AIDS estimates. 2013b. Geneva: UNICEF. https://data.unicef.org/topic/hivaids/global-regional-trends/
UNICEF. Children, adolescents and AIDS. 2014. Geneva: UNICEF. https://www.unicef.at/fileadmin/media/News/Themen/HIV_AIDS/UNICEF_zum_Weltaidstag_-_2014-11-28/UNICEF_-_Statistical_Update_on_Children_Adolescents_and_AIDS.pdf
Violari A, Cotton MF, Gibb DM, et al. Early antiretroviral therapy and mortality among HIV infected infants. New Engl J Med. 2008;359:2233–44.
Violari A, et al. Nevirapine versus ritonavir-boosted lopinavir for HIV-infected children. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(25):2380–9.
Whitmore SK, Taylor AW, Espinoza L, et al. Correlates of mother -to-child-transmission of HIV in the United States and Puerto Rico. Pediatrics. 2012;129:e74.
WHO. Making health service adolescent friendly. 2006 [cited 2014 Jan 22]. Available from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/75217/1/9789241503594_eng.pdf
WHO. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection. Geneva: WHO Press; June 2013 [cited 2015 April 17]. Available from: www.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/85321/1/9789241505727_eng.pdf
WHO. Global response on the health sector to HIV, 2014. 2014a [cited 2015 Apr 17]. Available from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/128494/1/9789241507585_eng.pdf
WHO. Health for the worlds adolescents. A second chance in the second decade. 2014b [cited 2015 April 17]. Available from: http://apps.who.int/adolescent/second-decade/section3
Yuki SA, Boritz E, Busch M, et al. Challenges in detecting HIV persistence during potentially curative interventions: a study of the Berlin patient. PLoS Pathog. 2013;9:e1003347.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Section Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media LLC
About this entry
Cite this entry
Barlow-Mosha, L., Lubega, I., Kabugho, E., Fowler, M.G. (2016). Children, Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS. In: Hope, T., Stevenson, M., Richman, D. (eds) Encyclopedia of AIDS. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9610-6_231-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9610-6_231-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-9610-6
eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine