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Powder Processing of Bulk Components in Manufacturing

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Handbook of Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Abstract

This chapter provides an overview of powder-forming methods for ceramics and metals. Powder forming is distinct from traditional melt-forming methods in that it involves forming a component from powder and densifying it without melting, via solid state sintering. Sintering typically occurs at around 80 % of the melting point. The primary benefits of powder forming are as follows: (a) reduced forming temperature (reduced energy cost), (b) capability for engineered porosity, (c) elimination of mold component reactions caused by melt forming, and (d) suitability for mass production of small metal components and ceramics of all shapes and sizes. Almost all ceramics are manufactured by powder forming. Most metals are formed by melt casting; however, powder metallurgy has grown into a large industry. This overview begins with a review of powder characterization and powder manufacturing techniques. Powder-forming techniques are then reviewed including the two main dry-forming methods (die pressing, cold isostatic pressing) and a range of wet-forming techniques including extrusion, plastic forming, slipcasting, tapecasting, powder injection molding, direct coagulation casting, gelcasting, and thixotropic casting. The overview then discusses powder densification techniques including pressureless sintering, self-propagating high-temperature synthesis, microwave sintering, two-step sintering, hot-pressing, hot isostatic pressing, spark plasma sintering, and sinter forging. Future trends discussed include additive manufacturing (powder 3D printing), functionally graded materials, and hydrostatic shock forming.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering, Sydney University, 2006, Sydney, NSW, Australia

    Andrew Ruys

  2. University of Craiova, No.1, Calugareni street, 220037, Drobeta Turnu Severin, Mehedinti, Romania

    Oana Gingu

  3. Faculty of Engineering and Management of Technological Systems (I.M.S.T.), University of Craiova, Mehedinti, Romania

    Gabriela Sima

  4. Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology, 71, Nanyang Drive, 638075, Singapore, Singapore

    Saeed Maleksaeedi

Authors
  1. Andrew Ruys
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  2. Oana Gingu
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  3. Gabriela Sima
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  4. Saeed Maleksaeedi
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andrew Ruys .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

    Andrew Y. C. Nee

Appendices

Annex 1. ISO Standards with Relevance for Particle Characterization

Annex 1.1. ISO Technical Committee 206 (TC206) Fine Ceramics (selection)

References

Title

ISO 14703:2008

Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) – Sample preparation for the determination of particle size distribution of ceramic powders

ISO 18753:2004

Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) – Determination of absolute density of ceramic powders by pycnometer

ISO 18754:2003

Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) – Determination of density and apparent porosity

ISO 18757:2003

Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) – Determination of specific surface area of ceramic powders by gas adsorption using the BET method

ISO 23145–1:2007

Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) – Determination of bulk density of ceramic powders – Part 1: Tap density

ISO 24235:2007

Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) – Determination of particle size distribution of ceramic powders by laser diffraction method

Annex 1.2. ISO Technical Committee 229 (TC229) Nanotechnologies (selection)

References

Title

ISO 9276–1:1998

Representation of results of particle size analysis – Part 1: Graphical representation

ISO 9276–2:2001

Representation of results of particle size analysis – Part 2: Calculation of average particle sizes/diameters and moments from particle size distributions

ISO 9276–3:2008

Representation of results of particle size analysis – Part 3: Adjustment of an experimental curve to a reference model

ISO 9276–6:2008

Representation of results of particle size analysis – Part 6: Descriptive and quantitative representation of particle shape and morphology

ISO 9277:1995

Determination of the specific surface area of solids by gas adsorption using the BET method

ISO 13317–1:2001

Determination of particle size distribution by gravitational liquid sedimentation methods – Part 1: General principles and guidelines

ISO 13317–2:2001

Determination of particle size distribution by gravitational liquid sedimentation methods – Part 2: Fixed pipette method

ISO 13317–3:2001

Determination of particle size distribution by gravitational liquid sedimentation methods – Part 3: X-ray gravitational technique

ISO 13318–1:2001

Determination of particle size distribution by centrifugal liquid sedimentation methods – Part 1: General principles and guidelines

ISO 13318–2:2007

Determination of particle size distribution by centrifugal liquid sedimentation methods – Part 2: Photocentrifuge method

ISO 13318–3:2004

Determination of particle size distribution by centrifugal liquid sedimentation methods – Part 3: Centrifugal X-ray method

ISO 13319:2007

Determination of particle size distributions – Electrical sensing zone method

ISO 13320:2009

Particle size analysis – Laser diffraction methods

ISO 13321:1996

Particle size analysis – Photon correlation spectroscopy

ISO 13322–1:2004

Particle size analysis – Image analysis methods – Part 1: Static image analysis methods

ISO 13322–2:2006

Particle size analysis – Image analysis methods – Part 2: Dynamic image analysis methods

ISO/TS 13762:2001

Particle size analysis – Small-angle X-ray scattering method

ISO 14488:2007

Particulate materials – Sampling and sample splitting for the determination of particulate properties

ISO 14887:2000

Sample preparation – Dispersing procedures for powders in liquids

ISO 15900:2009

Determination of particle size distribution – Differential electrical mobility analysis for aerosol particles

ISO 15901–1:2005

Pore size distribution and porosity of solid materials by mercury porosimetry and gas adsorption – Part 1: Mercury porosimetry

ISO 15901–2:2006

Pore size distribution and porosity of solid materials by mercury porosimetry and gas adsorption – Part 2: Analysis of mesopores and macropores by gas adsorption

ISO 15901–3:2007

Pore size distribution and porosity of solid materials by mercury porosimetry and gas adsorption – Part 3: Analysis of micropores by gas adsorption

ISO 20998–1:2006

Measurement and characterization of particles by acoustic methods – Part 1: Concepts and procedures in ultrasonic attenuation spectroscopy

ISO 21501–1:2009

Determination of particle size distribution – Single particle light interaction methods – Part 1: Light scattering aerosol spectrometer

ISO 21501–2:2007

Determination of particle size distribution – Single particle light interaction methods – Part 2: Light scattering liquid-borne particle counter

ISO 21501–3:2007

Determination of particle size distribution – Single particle light interaction methods – Part 3: Light extinction liquid-borne particle counter

ISO 21501–4:2007

Determination of particle size distribution – Single particle light interaction methods – Part 4: Light scattering airborne particle counter for clean spaces

ISO 22412:2008

Particle size analysis – Dynamic light scattering (DLS)

Annex 2. Standards for Apparent Density Determination

Type

Number

Title

ISO

ISO 3923–1:2008

Metallic powders. Determination of apparent density. Part 1: Funnel method

ISO 3923–2:1981

Metallic powders. Determination of apparent density. Part 2: Scott volumeter method

ISO 18459–1:2009

Metallic powders. Determination of apparent density and flow rate at elevated temperature. Part 1: determination of apparent density at elevated temperature

MPIF

MPIF Standard 04 2007 Edition

Method for determination of apparent density of free-flowing metal powders using the Hall apparatus

MPIF Standard 28 2007 Edition

Method for determination of apparent density of non-free-flowing metal powders using the Carney apparatus

MPIF Standard 48 2007 Edition

Method for determination of apparent density of metal powders using the Arnold meter

ASTM

ASTM B703-10

Standard test method for apparent density of metal powders and related compounds using the Arnold meter

ASTM B212-09

Standard test method for apparent density of free-flowing metal powders using the Hall flowmeter funnel

ASTM B329-06

Standard test method for apparent density of metal powders and compounds using the Scott volumeter

ASTM B417-11

Standard test method for apparent density of non free-flowing metal powders using the Carney funnel

Annex 3. Standards for Tap Density Determination

Type

Number

Title

ISO

ISO 3953:2011

Metallic powders. Determination of tap density

MPIF

MPFI Standard 46 2007 Edition

Method for determination of tap density of metal powders

ASTM

ASTM B527-06

Standard test method for determination of tap density of metallic powders and compounds

Annex 4. Standards for Flow Rate Determination

Type

Number

Title

ISO

ISO 4490:2008

Determination of flow rate by means of a calibrated funnel (hall flow meter)

ISO 18549–2:2009

Metallic powders. Determination of apparent density and flow rate at elevated temperatures. Part 2: Determination of flow rate at elevated temperature

MPIF

MPIF Standard 03 2007 Edition

Method for determination of flow rate of free-flowing metal powders using the Hall apparatus

ASTM

ASTM B964-09

Standard test methods for flow rate of metal powders using the Carney funnel

Annex 5. Standards for Powder Compressibility Determination

Type

Number

Title

ISO

ISO 3927:2011

Metallic powders, excluding powders for hard metals. Determination of compressibility in uniaxial compression

MPIF

MPIF Standards 452007 Edition

Method for determination of compressibility of metal powders

ASTM

ASTM B331-10

Standard test method for compressibility of metal powders in uniaxial compaction

Annex 6. Standards for Powder Compressibility Determination

Type

Number

Title

ISO

ISO 3995:1985

Determination of green strength by transverse rupture of rectangular compacts

MPIF

MPIF Standards 152007 Edition

Method for determination of green strength of unsintered compacted powder metallurgy materials

ASTM

ASTM B312-09

Standard test method for green strength of specimen compacted from metal powder

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Ruys, A., Gingu, O., Sima, G., Maleksaeedi, S. (2015). Powder Processing of Bulk Components in Manufacturing. In: Nee, A. (eds) Handbook of Manufacturing Engineering and Technology. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-4670-4_48

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