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GPS: Applications in Crustal Deformation Monitoring

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Extreme Environmental Events

Article Outline

Glossary

Definition of the Subject

Introduction

Global Positioning System Measurements

Applications of GPS Data to the Study of Seismic and Volcanic Hazards

Future Directions

Acknowledgments

Bibliography

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Abbreviations

Confidence ellipse:

As applied to a vector representing a displacement or velocity estimate, the confidence ellipse defines the region within which the value is estimated at or above a specified confidence level (e. g., 95%). Confidence ellipses are computed by propagation of errors when computing the position. The ellipse is usually plotted at the tip of a GPS vector (e. g., Fig. 9).

GNSS:

Global Navigation Satellite System. Although this acronym stands for the same phrase as GLONASS, GNSS is a generic term referring to space-based navigation systems like the Global Positioning System (GPS) operated by the U. S., Russia's GLONASS, and the Galileo system under development by the European Union.

Kinematic GPS:

A method of collecting GPS data in which the receiver is continuously or intermittently in motion. This receiver, called the rover, can receive corrections for ambiguity resolution and common errors from a nearby stationary receiver.

Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR):

A satellite‐based imaging technique in which the satellite emits a radar signal and measures the phase of the returning signal after it has been scattered off the surface of the Earth. The difference in phase of the scattered waves measured during two passes of the same satellite can be used to produce a map of deformation, called an interferogram, that occurred during the time between the two satellite passes.

International GNSS service (IGS):

An international consortium of agencies worldwide that provide data from permanent GPS and GLONASS sites in order to generate precise orbital and satellite clock parameters.

Ionosphere:

The electrically charged portion of the atmosphere from ∼60 km to ∼400 km above sea level. The ionosphere is dispersive, meaning that the degree to which it delays signal propagation depends on the signal's frequency and the electron content of the ionosphere.

Mega‐thrust earthquake:

A type of earthquake which causes rupture of a long portion of the interface between a subducting plate and the over‐riding plate. These earthquakes involve slip on a huge surface area, making them among the largest on Earth.

Moment magnitude (Mw):

A magnitude scale used to compare the energy released in earthquakes. The moment magnitude is computed from the seismic moment. Therefore, because Mw accounts for the full rupture length of the earthquake, the moment magnitude scale does not saturate for large events in the way that other magnitude scales do.

Reference frame:

A terrestrial reference frame is defined by a set of points on Earth whose coordinates are precisely determined in a coordinate system with a specified origin and orientation of the axes. In order to compare GPS site positions, displacements, or velocities they must all be transformed into the same reference frame. For GPS, the most commonly used reference frame is the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) which is updated periodically.

Rupture:

The slip that occurs during an earthquake. This term is often used in discussing the way in which the slip progresses with time over the fault surface, as in “the rupture front propagated southeast.”

Satellite laser ranging (SLR):

A geodetic technique for measuring the position of points on the surface of the Earth. Observation stations emit pulses of light that bounce off retroreflectors on satellites and return to the stations. The stations record the travel time of the light which is used to calculate a range measurement.

Slip:

The distance that material on one side of a fault moves relative to that on the other side.

Stable North America:

The stable interior portion of the North American continent that is not affected by plate boundary deformation. Often this term is used in the context of a “stable North American” reference frame, meaning that GPS velocities are transformed so that the velocities at stations considered to be in the stable interior of the continent are essentially zero. Because of factors such as Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA), even some GPS sites in the continental interior have nonzero velocities. These sites are typically omitted when defining a stable North American reference frame.

Strainmeter:

An instrument that is capable of measuring change in distance over short baselines. These instruments typically come in two forms. The first is installed at the Earth's surface and uses a laser interferometer to measure the changes in distance over baseline lengths of 100s of meters. The second type is installed in a borehole 100s of meters deep to measure subtle changes in the diameter of the borehole. Some borehole strainmeters measure volumetric strain (e. g. the Sacks–Evertson strainmeter) and others measure three independent components of horizontal strain (e. g. the Gladwin tensor strainmeter).

Strong motion seismograph:

Seismic instrument designed to record high‐amplitude shaking near an earthquake rupture. These instruments typically record acceleration, and are sometimes called accelerometers. Data recording is often triggered by the arrival of the first seismic waves, and these instruments can record acceleration several times that of gravity.

Teleseismic:

Refers to seismic waves recorded at distances greater than 3000 km from the epicenter.

Troposphere:

The portion of the atmosphere from the Earth's surface to ∼15 km which delays GPS signal propagation. The degree to which the GPS signal is delayed depends on the spatially and temporally varying atmospheric pressure and water vapor content.

Very long baseline interferometry (VLBI):

A geodetic positioning technique in which radio signals from distant sources such as quasars received at an array of antennas are used to calculate precise positions.

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Acknowledgments

John Langbein, Margaret Boettcher, Maurizio Battaglia, Emily Desmarais, Tom Hanks, and Fred Pollitz provided helpful comments which significantly improved this manuscript.

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  1. US Geological Survey, Menlo Park, USA

    Jessica Murray-Moraleda

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Murray-Moraleda, J. (2011). GPS: Applications in Crustal Deformation Monitoring. In: Meyers, R. (eds) Extreme Environmental Events. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7695-6_33

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