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Tritium , Health Effects and Dosimetry

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Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology

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Definition of the Subject

Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen that is produced both naturally and by man-made activities such as nuclear power plants. As a hydrogen isotope , a tritium atom behaves in the same physical and chemical manner as hydrogen atoms and so it can become part of water molecules and organic molecules. In these forms, tritium is very mobile and can enter biological systems and has the potential to damage living cells.

The biological damage caused by tritium radiation is the same as that from other radiations, but properties such as being an internal risk, being a very weak beta emitter, and being part of organic molecules distinguish its effects from that of other radiations such as x-rays and gamma rays.

Tritium is also distinguished in that it is one of the most studied radioisotopes with respect to causing biological effects. This contribution reviews what is known of the biological effects of tritium...

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Abbreviations

Absorbed dose:

The energy deposited by ionizing radiation to a suitably small volume of matter divided by the mass of that volume. Unit gray, symbol Gy.

Beta particles:

High-energy negatively charged electrons or positively charged positrons that are ejected by radioactive (unstable) elements as they decay. A beta particle is identical in mass and charge to an electron. Beta particles are relatively small and can be stopped, for example, by a sheet of aluminum a few millimeters thick.

Biokinetic model:

A mathematical description of the behavior of radionuclides in the metabolic processes of cells, tissues, organs, and organisms. It is most frequently used to describe distribution of radionuclides among tissues and excretion.

Biological half-life:

Of a given radionuclide, the time required for the activity to decrease, by biological clearance, to half of its original activity.

Carcinogen:

Any agent, such as a chemical or a form of radiation that can cause cancer.

Chromosome:

Structure composed of a very long DNA molecule and associated proteins that carries part (or all) of the hereditary information of an organism.

Chromosome aberrations:

Damage to chromosomes resulting in dicentric chromosomes, centric chromosomes, acentric rings, or terminal deletions.

Chronic exposure:

Exposure persisting in time. The adjective “chronic” relates only to the duration of exposure, and does not imply anything about the magnitude of the doses involved. Normally used to refer to exposures persisting from days to many years.

Deterministic effects:

Changes in cells and tissues that are certain to occur after an acute dose of radiation (in excess of a threshold value of at least 1,000 mSv), below which the radiation effect is not detected. The severity of health effects – such as skin reddening, burns, and hair loss – increase with the radiation dose received.

DNA:

Deoxyribonucleic acid is the molecular compound in the nucleus of a cell that forms the blueprint for the structure and function of the cell. DNA has a three-dimensional structure in which two DNA chains are held together by hydrogen bonding between the bases, forming a helix.

Dose:

A general term for a measure of the energy deposited by radiation in a unit mass. See the more specific terms absorbed dose, equivalent dose, effective dose, and collective dose.

Dose and dose rate effectiveness factor (DDREF):

The ratio between the risk per unit effective dose for high doses and dose rates and low doses and dose rates.

Dose mean lineal energies:

The average or mean energy that is released by the radiant particle along its path. This value is then used to calculate the absorbed dose in Gray.

Dose rate:

A dose delivered over any unit of time (e.g., an annual dose is technically a dose rate).

Dosimetric model:

(1) For intakes of radionuclides into the body, a model that estimates the dose in various organs and tissues per disintegration of a radionuclide in a specified source organ (site of deposition or transit in the body). (2) For external exposure, model that estimates the dose rate in organs and tissues per unit activity concentration of a radionuclide in an environmental medium.

Dosimetry:

A scientific subspecialty in radiation protection and medical physics that focuses on calculating the internal and external doses from ionizing radiation.

Gray (Gy):

Radiation damage is dependent on the absorption of radiation energy and is approximately proportional to the concentration of absorbed energy in tissue. The gray is the SI unit of absorbed radiation dose corresponding to the absorption of 1 Joule (J) of radiation energy per kilogram of material. For gamma and beta radiations, the gray is numerically equal to the sievert.

Hematopoietic:

Any developmental series of cells that derives from hematopoietic stem cells and results in the production of mature blood cells.

Hereditary effect:

A radiation induced health effect that occurs in a descendent of the exposed person.

In vitro:

Latin for “within the glass,” a term used to describe experiments that are performed not in a living organism but in a controlled environment, such as in a test tube or Petri dish.

In vivo:

Latin for “within the living,” a term used to describe experiments using a whole, living organism as opposed to a partial or dead organism, or an in vitro controlled environment.

Internal emitter:

A radioactive substance that has entered the body through ingestion, inhalation, or absorption.

Isotropic effect:

The difference in physical properties and chemical reactivity due to the difference in mass between isotopes of the same element.

Linear energy transfer:

A measure of energy deposited over a distance as the energy is transferred from radiation to the exposed matter. A high value of linear energy transfer indicates that energy is deposited within a small distance (i.e., Joules μm−1).

Oocyte:

The developing egg. It is usually a large and immobile cell.

Oogenesis:

Formation and maturation of oocytes in the ovary.

Orthovoltage x-rays:

X-rays produced by x-ray tubes operating at voltages in the 200–500 kVp range (i.e., the peak voltage), and thus possessing energy up to 200–500 keV, although there is a spectrum of energies with a peak much less than the peak tube voltage.

Relative biological effectiveness (RBE):

A relative measure of the effectiveness of different radiation types in inducing a specified health effect. It is expressed as the inverse ratio of the absorbed doses of two different radiation types, the denominator being the reference radiation that would produce the same degree of a defined biological end point.

Stochastic effects:

A term used to group radiation induced health effects that have a statistical risk, such as cancer or inheritable diseases. For these diseases, the probability of their occurrence increases proportionally to the radiation dose received: the lower the dose, the lower the probability of occurrence. However, at no time, even for high doses, is it certain that cancer or genetic damage will result.

Teratogenic:

Substances or agents that can interfere with normal embryonic development.

Tritium:

A radioactive isotope of the element hydrogen (symbol T or 3H). The nucleus of tritium (sometimes called a triton) contains one proton and two neutrons. Tritium atoms can replace hydrogen atoms in water molecules to form tritiated water (HTO), in organic molecules to form organically bound tritium (OBT), in air to form tritiated gas (HT). Tritium also exists in many other compounds such as tritiated hydrocarbons, tritiated particulates, tritiated thymidine, and metal tritides (tritium bearing metals).

X-ray:

Ionizing electromagnetic radiation emitted by an atom when it has been bombarded with electrons. X-rays differ from gamma rays in that they are emitted from the orbiting electrons, not the nucleus, and they have a much wider energy range, or spectra. A “soft X-ray” is one of low energy, generally below 100 keV.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Directorate of Environmental and Radiation Protection and Assessment, Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, 280 Slater Street, Ottawa, ON, K1P 5S9, Canada

    Kevin Bundy, Bertrand Thériault, Rachel Lane, Julie Burtt & Patsy Thompson

Authors
  1. Kevin Bundy
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  2. Bertrand Thériault
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  3. Rachel Lane
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Correspondence to Kevin Bundy .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. RAMTECH LIMITED, Larkspur, CA, USA

    Robert A. Meyers

Units

Units

  • Bq: becquerel

  • cm: centimeter

  • d: day

  • g: gram

  • GBq: gigabecquerel

  • Gy: gray

  • h: hour

  • kBq: kilobecquerel

  • keV: kiloelectron volts

  • kg: kilogram

  • km2: kilometer squared

  • kV: kilovolt

  • kVcp: kilovolt constant potential

  • kVp: kilovolt peak

  • L: liter

  • MBq: megabequerel

  • m: meter

  • m2: meter squared

  • m3: meter cubed

  • mGy: milligray

  • mL: milliliter

  • mm: millimeter

  • mSv: millisievert

  • R: röntgen

  • Sv: sievert

  • μSv: microsievert

  • μm: micrometer

  • y: year

Abbreviations

AECL

Atomic Energy Canada Limited

AGIR

Advisory Group on Ionizing Radiation

AI

Alveolar-interstitial

BEIR

Biological Effects of Ionizing radiation

BW

Body weight

CF

Concentration fetus

CM

Concentration mother

CANDU

Canadian deuterium uranium

CERRIE

Committee Examining Radiation Risk from Internal Emitters

CI

Confidence interval

CNSC

Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission

CTH3

Tritiated methane

DAC

Derived air concentration

DDREF

Dose and dose rate effectiveness factor

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid

GI

Gastro-intestinal

H2O

Chemical symbol for water, also seen as HOH

HCNO

Hydrogen carbon nitrogen oxygen

HSE

Health and Safety Executive

HT

Tritiated gas

3HTdR

Tritiated thymidine

HTO

Tritiated water

ICRP

International Commission on Radiological Protection

ICRU

International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements

LD

Lethal dose

LD50/30

Lethal dose that kills 50% of the population in 30 days

LDEF

Low dose effectiveness factor

LET

Linear energy transfer

N

Number

NCRP

National Council on Radiation Protection

NGS

Nuclear generating station

NPP

Nuclear power plant

OBT

Organically bound tritium

OH

Hydroxyl

OPG

Ontario Power Generation

OR

Odds ratio

PNM

Principal nutrient metabolic

PSL

Priority substance list

PWR

Pressurized water reactor

Q

Quality factor

RBE

Relative biological effectiveness

RBEMAX/M

Maximum relative biological effectiveness

REF

Radiation effectiveness factor

RR

Relative risk

SMR

Standardized mortality ratio

SSB

Single strand break

SSK

German Commission on Radiological Protection

Type F,M,S

Type fast, medium, slow, absorption rates

UK

United Kingdom

UKAEA

United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority

UNSCEAR

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

wR

Radiation weighting factor

wT

Tissue weighting factor

χ2

Chi squared

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Bundy, K., Thériault, B., Lane, R., Burtt, J., Thompson, P. (2012). Tritium , Health Effects and Dosimetry . In: Meyers, R.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3_423

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