Abstract
Poverty was a relative matter in the Middle Ages, as it is nowadays. There were different modes of poverty: voluntary poverty for the religious, the simulated poverty of hypocrites, and the involuntary poverty of mendicants forced to beg in order to survive. Since mendicancy was a serious problem throughout the Middle Ages, the church and, later on, society were forced to create and develop forms of poor relief. The church recommended benevolence toward the poor who did not have means of sustenance, mainly encouraging people to give alms. The common opinion was that one should give alms from one’s surplus and take care of oneself and those closest to one first. The recipient should be in need. However, two natural law principles, the maxims of necessitas non habet legem and of communis omnium possessio founded on canon law, ordered the almsgiving. From the thirteenth century onward scholastics emphasized that property was necessary for functioning in the public sphere, both in the state and in the church. They promoted the idea of limited wealth needed to support life and that a person’s moral responsibility involved having property. The Franciscan ideal of poverty as the renunciation of all modes of rights was criticized as being against the natural duty of subsistence. There was also an important discussion on individual rights and actions, which led to the doctrine of natural rights in the late Middle Ages. Poverty was also seen as one central theme in late medieval political theory concerning the relationship between ownership and political rule. Various concepts marked a contrast between the inferiority of the pauper and the superiority of the person who possessed power (potestas) or civic liberty (civis, burgensis), or wealth (dives).
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Aquinas Thomas (1888–1906) Summa theologiae, ed. Leonina. Opera omnia, vols 4–12. S. Sabina, Rome
Aquinas Thomas (1970) Contra impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem, ed. Leonina. Sabina, Rome
Bonaventure (1898) Apologia pauperum. Opera omnia edita cura et studio pp. collegii a S. Bonaventura, vol VIII. Collegium S. Bonaventurae, Quaracchi, pp 30–330
Francis of Assisi (1993) Regula Bullata. Die Opuscula des Hl. Franziskus von Assisi, ed. Esser K. Spicilegium Bonaventurianum XIII. Editiones Collegii S. Bonaventurae ad Claras Aquas, Grottaferrata
Gerard of Abbeville (1938/1939) Tractatus Gerardi de Abbatisvilla: Conta adversarium perfectionis, ed. Clasen S. Archivum Franciscanum Historicum (1938) 31:276–329; (1939) 32:89–200
Godfrey of Fontaines (1904–1937) Les Quodlibets de Godefroid de Fontaines, vols I–XV, ed. De Wulf M, Peltzer A, Hoffmans J, Lottin O. Institut supérieur de philosophie de l’université, Louvain
Gratianus (1879) Decretum Magistri Gratiani, ed. Friedberg A, Tauchnitz B. Corpus Iuris Canonici, vol I. Leipzig
Vives Juan Luis (2002) De subventione pauperum sive de humanis necessitatibus: Introduction, critical edition, translation and notes, Libri II, ed. Matheeussen C, Fantazzi C, De Landtsheer J. Brill, Leiden/Boston
William of Ockham (1940/1963) Opus nonaginta dierum, caps. 1–6, ed. Bennet RF, Sikes JG. Guillelmi de Ockham, Opera Politica, vol 1. University Press, Manchester, pp 287–374 (1940); caps. 7–124, ed. Sikes J, Offler HS. Opera Politica, vol 2. University Press, Manchester, pp 375–858 (1963)
William of Saint-Amour (1632) Tractatus brevis de periculis novissimorum temporum, ed. Alithophilius. Opera omnia. Constantiae, Paris, pp 17–72
Secondary Sources
Brunner O (1984) Sozialgeschichte Europas in Mittelalter, 2. Aufl. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen
Coleman J (1991) Property and poverty. In: Burns JH (ed) The Cambridge history of medieval political thought c. 350–c. 1450. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 607–652
Cusato MF (2009) Poverty. In: The Cambridge history of medieval philosophy, vol. II. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 577–592
de Vinck J (trans) (1966) Defense of the mendicants. Works of St. Bonaventure, vol IV. St. Anthony Guil, Paterson
Dyer C (1989) Standards of living in the later Middle Ages: social change in England c. 1200–1520. Cambridge medieval textbook. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Evans GR (2009) Law and nature. In: The Cambridge history of medieval philosophy, vol II. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp 565–576
Henderson J (1994) Piety and charity in late medieval Florence. University of Chicago Press, Chicago/London
Kantola I (1994) Probability and moral uncertainty in late medieval and early modern times. Luther-Agricola-Society, Helsinki
Kilcullen J (1995) The origin of property: Ockham, Grotius, Pufendorf, and some others. http://www.mq.edu.au/hpp/politics/prop.html. Accessed 15 Jan 2009
Lambert MD (1961) Franciscan poverty: the doctrine of the absolute poverty of Christ and the Apostles in the Franciscan order 1210–1323. SPCK, London
Lambertini R (2000) La povertà pensata. Mucchi Editore, Modena
Lawrence CH (1994) The Friars: the impact of the early mendicant movement on western society. Lingman, London/New York
Little LK (1978) Religious poverty and the profit economy in medieval Europe. Cornell University Press, Ithaca
Mäkinen V (2001) Property rights in the late medieval discussion on Franciscan poverty. Peeters, Leuven
McGovern JF (1970) The rise of new economic attitudes – economic humanism, economic nationalism – during the later middle ages and the Renaissance, A.D. 1200–1500. Traditio 26:217–253
McKeon PR (1964) The development of the concept of property in political philosophy: a study of the background of the constitution. Ethics XLVIII:304–312
Mollat M (1978) The poor in the Middle Ages: an essay in social history (trans: Goldhammer A). Yale University Press, New Haven/London
Roumy F (2006) L’origine et la diffusion de l’adage canonique Necessitas non habet legem (VIIIe-XIIIe s). In: Müller WP, Sommar ME (eds) Medieval church law and the origins of the western legal tradition: a tribute to Kenneth Pennington. The Catholic University of America Press, Washington, pp 301–319
Swanson SG (1997) The medieval foundations of John Locke’s theory of natural rights: rights of subsistence and the principle of extreme necessity. Hist Polit Thought 18:399–456
Tierney B (1959) Medieval poor law: a sketch of canonical theory and its application in England. University of California Press, Berkeley
Tierney B (1997) The idea of natural rights: studies on natural rights, natural law and church law 1150–1625. Scholars, Atlanta
Van den Eijnden JGJ (1994) Poverty on the way to God: Thomas Aquinas on evangelical poverty. Peeters, Leuven
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
About this entry
Cite this entry
Mäkinen, V. (2011). Poverty. In: Lagerlund, H. (eds) Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9729-4_415
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9729-4_415
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-9728-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-9729-4
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and Law