Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Polio and Its Epidemiology

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Infectious Diseases

  • 931 Accesses

  • Originally published in
  • R. A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020

Glossary

ACPE:

The Advisory Committee on Polio Eradication.

AFP:

Acute flaccid paralysis.

AFP surveillance:

Characterization of enteroviruses in stool samples from all AFP cases especially in individuals under 15 years of age to rule in or rule out etiology by polioviruses.

AFR or AFRO:

The African Health Region of the WHO.

AGG:

A PID with agammaglobulinemia.

AMR or AMRO:

The American Health Region of the WHO.

aVDPV:

A vaccine-derived poliovirus isolate whose evolutionary path is unknown or ambiguous.

bOPV:

Bivalent oral polio vaccine (containing serotypes 1 and 3).

BSL:

Biosafety standard level.

CAG:

Containment Advisory Group.

C-antigens:

Refers to the epitopes after poliovirus interacts with CD155 host cell receptor and transitions into a 135S particle.

Capsid:

The protein shell that surrounds a virus particle.

Capsomere:

One of the individual morphological units that makes up the viral capsid. It contains a single copy of viral capsid proteins VP1, VP|2, VP3, and VP4.

...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Bibliography

  1. Lahariya C (2007) Global eradication of polio: the case for “finishing the job”. Bull World Health Organ 85(6):487–492

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Daniel TM, Robbins FC (1997) A history of poliomyelitis. In: Daniel TM, Robbins FC (eds) Polio. University of Rochester Press, Rochester, pp 5–22

    Google Scholar 

  3. GPEI (2015) Global eradication of wild poliovirus type 2 declared. On-line at http://www.polioeradication.org/mediaroom/newsstories/Global-eradication-of-wild-poliovirus-type-2-declared/tabid/526/news/1289/Default.aspx. Last accessed Sept 2016

  4. Kew OM, Sutter RW, de Gourville EM, Dowdle WR, Pallansch MA (2005) Vaccine-derived polioviruses and the endgame strategy for global polio eradication. Annu Rev Microbiol 59:587–635

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Sutter RW, Kew OM, Cochi SL (2008) Poliovirus vaccine – live. In: Plotkin SA, Orenstein WA, Offit PA (eds) Vaccines, 5th edn. Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia, pp 631–685

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  6. Burnet FM, MacNamara J (1931) Immunological differences between strains of poliomyelitic virus. Br J Exp Pathol 12:57–61

    Google Scholar 

  7. Wyatt HV (1985) Provocation of poliomyelitis by multiple injections. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 79(3):355–358

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Enders J, Weller T, FC R. (1949) Cultivation of the Lansing strain of poliomyelitis virus in cultures of various human embryonic tissues. Science 109(2822):85–87

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Dulbecco R, Vogt M (1954) Plaque formation and isolation of pure lines with poliomyelitis viruses. J Exp Med 99(2):167–182

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. van Wezel AL (1967) Growth of cell-strains and primary cells on micro-carriers in homogeneous culture. Nature 216(5110):64–65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Cockburn WC (1988) The work of the WHO consultative group on poliomyelitis vaccines. Bull World Health Organ 66(2):143–154

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Mendelsohn CL, Wimmer E, Racaniello VR (1989) Cellular receptor for poliovirus: molecular cloning, nucleotide sequence, and expression of a new member of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Cell 56(5):855–865

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Dragunsky E, Nomura T, Karpinski K, Furesz J, Wood DJ, Pervikov Y, Abe S, Kurata T, Vanloocke O, Karganova G, Taffs R, Heath A, Ivshina A, Levenbook I (2003) Transgenic mice as an alternative to monkeys for neurovirulence testing of live oral poliovirus vaccine: validation by a WHO collaborative study. Bull World Health Organ 81(4):251–260

    Google Scholar 

  14. Wood DJ, Hull B (1999) L20B cells simplify culture of polioviruses from clinical samples. J Med Virol 58(2):188–192

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Brodie M (1935) Active immunization against poliomyelitis. Am J Public Health Nations Health 25(1):54–67

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Kolmer JA (1936) Vaccination against acute anterior poliomyelitis. Am J Public Health Nations Health 26(2):126–135

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Salk JE (1953) Studies in human subjects on active immunization against poliomyelitis. I. A preliminary report of experiments in progress. J Am Med Assoc 151(13):1081–1098

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Salk JE, Bazeley PL, Bennett BL, Krech U, Lewis LJ, Ward EN, Youngner JS (1954) Studies in human subjects on active immunization against poliomyelitis. II. A practical means for inducing and maintaining antibody formation. Am J Public Health Nations Health 44(8):994–1009

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Koprowski H, Jervis G, Norton T (1952) Immune responses in human volunteers upon oral administration of a rodent-adapted strain of poliomyelitis virus. Am J Epidemiol 55(1):108–126

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Koprowski H (2006) First decade (1950–1960) of studies and trials with the polio vaccine. Biologicals 34(2):81–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Sabin AB (1957) Properties and behavior of orally administered attenuated poliovirus vaccine. J Am Med Assoc 164(11):1216–1223

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Cox HR, Cabasso VJ, Markham FS, Moses MJ, Moyer AW, Roca-Garcia M, Ruegsegger JM (1959) Immunological response to trivalent oral poliomyelitis vaccine. Br Med J 2(5152):591–597

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Furesz J (2006) Developments in the production and quality control of poliovirus vaccines – historical perspectives. Biologicals 34(2):87–90

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. John TJ (2001) Anomalous observations on IPV and OPV vaccination. In: Brown F (ed) Progress in polio eradication: vaccine strategies for the end game. Karger, Basel, pp 197–208

    Google Scholar 

  25. Davidson I, Shulman LM (2008) Unraveling the puzzle of human anellovirus infections by comparison with avian infections with the chicken anemia virus. Virus Res 137(1):1–15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Shulman LM, Davidson I (2017) Viruses with circular single-stranded DNA genomes are everywhere! Annu Rev Virol 4(1):159–180

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Racaniello VR (2007) Picornaviridae: the viruses and their replication. In: Knipe DM, Howley PM, Editors A, Griffin DE, Lamb RA, Straus SE, Martin MA, Roizman B (eds) Fields virology, 5th edn. Wolters Klewer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp 795–838

    Google Scholar 

  28. Wimmer E, Hellen CU, Cao X (1993) Genetics of poliovirus. Annu Rev Genet 27:353–436

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Wimmer E (2006) The test-tube synthesis of a chemical called poliovirus. The simple synthesis of a virus has far-reaching societal implications. EMBO Rep 7 Spec No:S3–S9

    Google Scholar 

  30. Molla A, Paul AV, Wimmer E (1991) Cell-free, de novo synthesis of poliovirus. Science 254(5038):1647–1651

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Poyry T, Kinnunen L, Hovi T (1992) Genetic variation in vivo and proposed functional domains of the 5′ noncoding region of poliovirus RNA. J Virol 66(9):5313–5319

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Pilipenko EV, Blinov VM, Romanova LI, Sinyakov AN, Maslova SV, Agol VI (1989) Conserved structural domains in the 5′-untranslated region of picornaviral genomes: an analysis of the segment controlling translation and neurovirulence. Virology 168(2):201–209

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Skinner MA, Racaniello VR, Dunn G, Cooper J, Minor PD, Almond JW (1989) New model for the secondary structure of the 5′ non-coding RNA of poliovirus is supported by biochemical and genetic data that also show that RNA secondary structure is important in neurovirulence. J Mol Biol 207(2):379–392

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Knowlson S, Burlison J, Giles E, Fox H, Macadam AJ, Minor PD (2015) New strains intended for the production of inactivated polio vaccine at low-containment after eradication. PLoS Pathog 11(12):e1005316

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Liu HM, Zheng DP, Zhang LB, Oberste MS, Kew OM, Pallansch MA (2003) Serial recombination during circulation of type 1 wild-vaccine recombinant polioviruses in China. J Virol 77(20):10994–11005

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Pelletier J, Sonenberg N (1988) Internal initiation of translation of eukaryotic mRNA directed by a sequence derived from poliovirus RNA. Nature 334(6180):320–325

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Jang SK, Krausslich HG, Nicklin MJ, Duke GM, Palmenberg AC, Wimmer E (1988) A segment of the 5′ nontranslated region of encephalomyocarditis virus RNA directs internal entry of ribosomes during in vitro translation. J Virol 62(8):2636–2643

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Gamarnik AV, Andino R (1997) Two functional complexes formed by KH domain containing proteins with the 5′ noncoding region of poliovirus RNA. RNA 3(8):882–892

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Racaniello VR (2001) Picornaviridae: the viruses and their replication. In: Fields BN, Knipe N, Howley P (eds) Virology, 4th edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp 685–722

    Google Scholar 

  40. Krausslich HG, Nicklin MJ, Lee CK, Wimmer E (1988) Polyprotein processing in picornavirus replication. Biochimie 70(1):119–130

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Shulman LM, Manor Y, Handsher R, Delpeyroux F, McDonough MJ, Halmut T, Silberstein I, Alfandari J, Quay J, Fisher T, Robinov J, Kew OM, Crainic R, Mendelson E (2000) Molecular and antigenic characterization of a highly evolved derivative of the type 2 oral poliovaccine strain isolated from sewage in Israel. J Clin Microbiol 38(10):3729–3734

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Jorba J, Campagnoli R, De L, Kew O (2008) Calibration of multiple poliovirus molecular clocks covering an extended evolutionary range. J Virol 82(9):4429–4440

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Goodfellow IG, Kerrigan D, Evans DJ (2003) Structure and function analysis of the poliovirus cis-acting replication element (CRE). RNA 9(1):124–137

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Goodfellow IG, Polacek C, Andino R, Evans DJ (2003) The poliovirus 2C cis-acting replication element-mediated uridylylation of VPg is not required for synthesis of negative-sense genomes. J Gen Virol 84(Pt 9):2359–2363

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Van Damme P (2018) Novel Oral Poliomyelitis Type 2 Vaccine – nOPV2 GMO Deliberate Release Notification Part 3 – Environmental Risk Assessment April 2018, University of Antwerp. https://www.health.belgium.be/sites/default/files/.../18-bvw2_part2_era_180423.pdf. Last accessed June 2019

  46. Van Damme P, De Coster I, Bandyopadhyay AS, Revets H, Withanage K, De Smedt P, Suykens L, Oberste MS, Weldon WC, Costa-Clemens SA, Clemens R, Modlin J, Weiner AJ, Macadam AJ, Andino R, Kew OM, Konopka-Anstadt JL, Burns CC, Konz J, Wahid R, Gast C (2019) The safety and immunogenicity of two novel live attenuated monovalent (serotype 2) oral poliovirus vaccines in healthy adults: a double-blind, single-centre phase 1 study. Lancet 394:148–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Bouchard MJ, Lam DH, Racaniello VR (1995) Determinants of attenuation and temperature sensitivity in the type 1 poliovirus Sabin vaccine. J Virol 69(8):4972–4978

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Bergamini G, Preiss T, Hentze MW (2000) Picornavirus IRESes and the poly(A) tail jointly promote cap-independent translation in a mammalian cell-free system. RNA 6(12):1781–1790

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Crawford NM, Baltimore D (1983) Genome-linked protein VPg of poliovirus is present as free VPg and VPg-pUpU in poliovirus-infected cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 80(24):7452–7455

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Kuhn RJ, Tada H, Ypma-Wong MF, Dunn JJ, Semler BL, Wimmer E (1988) Construction of a “mutagenesis cartridge” for poliovirus genome-linked viral protein: isolation and characterization of viable and nonviable mutants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 85(2):519–523

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Ambros V, Pettersson RF, Baltimore D (1978) An enzymatic activity in uninfected cells that cleaves the linkage between poliovirion RNA and the 5′ terminal protein. Cell 15(4):1439–1446

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Wien MW, Chow M, Hogle JM (1996) Poliovirus: new insights from an old paradigm. Structure 4(7):763–767

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Li Q, Yafal AG, Lee YM, Hogle J, Chow M (1994) Poliovirus neutralization by antibodies to internal epitopes of VP4 and VP1 results from reversible exposure of these sequences at physiological temperature. J Virol 68(6):3965–3970

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Harkonen T, Lankinen H, Davydova B, Hovi T, Roivainen M (2002) Enterovirus infection can induce immune responses that cross-react with beta-cell autoantigen tyrosine phosphatase IA-2/IAR. J Med Virol 66(3):340–350

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Page GS, Mosser AG, Hogle JM, Filman DJ, Rueckert RR, Chow M (1988) Three-dimensional structure of poliovirus serotype 1 neutralizing determinants. J Virol 62(5):1781–1794

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Lentz KN, Smith AD, Geisler SC, Cox S, Buontempo P, Skelton A, DeMartino J, Rozhon E, Schwartz J, Girijavallabhan V, O’Connell J, Arnold E (1997) Structure of poliovirus type 2 Lansing complexed with antiviral agent SCH48973: comparison of the structural and biological properties of three poliovirus serotypes. Structure 5(7):961–978

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Hogle JM, Chow M, Filman DJ (1985) Three-dimensional structure of poliovirus at 2.9 A resolution. Science 229(4720):1358–1365

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Filman DJ, Syed R, Chow M, Macadam AJ, Minor PD, Hogle JM (1989) Structural factors that control conformational transitions and serotype specificity in type 3 poliovirus. EMBO J 8(5):1567–1579

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Bodian D, Morgan IM, Howe HA (1949) Differentiation of types of poliomyelitis viruses; the grouping of 14 strains into three basic immunological types. Am J Hyg 49(2):234–245

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Mayer MM, Rapp HJ, Roizman B, Klein SW, Cowan KM, Lukens D (1957) The purification of poliomyelitis virus as studied by complement fixation. J Immunol 78(6):435–455

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Le Bouvier GL (1955) The modification of poliovirus antigens by heat and ultraviolet light. Lancet 269(6898):1013–1016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Wilton T, Dunn G, Eastwood D, Minor PD, Martin J (2014) Effect of formaldehyde inactivation on poliovirus. J Virol 88(20):11955–11964

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Tuthill TJ, Bubeck D, Rowlands DJ, Hogle JM (2006) Characterization of early steps in the poliovirus infection process: receptor-decorated liposomes induce conversion of the virus to membrane-anchored entry-intermediate particles. J Virol 80(1):172–180

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Fricks CE, Hogle JM (1990) Cell-induced conformational change in poliovirus: externalization of the amino terminus of VP1 is responsible for liposome binding. J Virol 64(5):1934–1945

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Melnick JL, Ramos-Alvarez M, Black FL, Girardi AJ, Nagaki D (1954) Poliomyelitis viruses in tissue culture. VII. Experiences with viral and serological diagnostic procedures. Yale J Biol Med 26(6):465–485

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Svedmyr A, Enders JF, Holloway A (1953) Complement fixation with the three types of poliomyelitis viruses propagated in tissue culture. Am J Hyg 57(1):60–70

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Ferguson M, Wood DJ, Minor PD (1993) Antigenic structure of poliovirus in inactivated vaccines. J Gen Virol 74(Pt 4):685–690

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Minor PD, Schild GC, Wood JM, Dandawate CN (1980) The preparation of specific immune sera against type 3 poliovirus D-antigen and C-antigen and the demonstration of two C-antigenic components in vaccine strain populations. J Gen Virol 51(Pt 1):147–156

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. White JA, Estrada M, Weldon WC, Chumakov K, Kouiavskaia D, Fournier-Caruana J, Stevens E, Gary HE Jr, Maes EF, Oberste MS, Snider CJ, Anand A, Chen D (2018) Assessing the potency and immunogenicity of inactivated poliovirus vaccine after exposure to freezing temperatures. Biologicals 53:30–38

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Westdijk J, Brugmans D, Martin J, van’t Oever A, Bakker WA, Levels L, Kersten G (2011) Characterization and standardization of Sabin based inactivated polio vaccine: proposal for a new antigen unit for inactivated polio vaccines. Vaccine 29(18):3390–3397

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Kersten G, Hazendonk T, Beuvery C (1999) Antigenic and immunogenic properties of inactivated polio vaccine made from Sabin strains. Vaccine 17(15–16):2059–2066

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Sawyer LA, McInnis J, Albrecht P (1993) Quantitation of D antigen content in inactivated poliovirus vaccine derived from wild-type or Sabin strains. Biologicals 21(2):169–177

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Wilton T (2016) Methods for the quality control of inactivated poliovirus vaccines. Methods Mol Biol 1387:279–297

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Morgeaux S, Milne C, Daas A (2005) Feasibility study to develop a common in vitro D antigen assay for inactivated poliomyelitis vaccines. Pharmeuropa Bio 2005(1):19–26

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Wood DJ, Heath AB (1995) A WHO collaborative study of immunogenicity assays of inactivated poliovirus vaccines. Biologicals 23(4):301–311

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Ursache RV, Thomassen YE, van Eikenhorst G, Verheijen PJ, Bakker WA (2015) Mathematical model of adherent Vero cell growth and poliovirus production in animal component free medium. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 38(3):543–555

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Martin J, Crossland G, Wood DJ, Minor PD (2003) Characterization of formaldehyde-inactivated poliovirus preparations made from live-attenuated strains. J Gen Virol 84(Pt 7):1781–1788

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Thomassen YE, Rubingh O, Wijffels RH, van der Pol LA, Bakker WA (2014) Improved poliovirus D-antigen yields by application of different Vero cell cultivation methods. Vaccine 32(24):2782–2788

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Sanders BP, Oakes Ide L, van Hoek V, Liu Y, Marissen W, Minor PD, Wimmer E, Schuitemaker H, Custers JH, Macadam A, Cello J, Edo-Matas D (2015) Production of high titer attenuated poliovirus strains on the serum-free PER.C6((R)) cell culture platform for the generation of safe and affordable next generation IPV. Vaccine 33(48):6611–6616

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Bockstal V, Tiemessen MM, Achterberg R, Van Wordragen C, Knaapen AM, Serroyen J, Marissen WE, Schuitemaker H, Zahn R (2018) An inactivated poliovirus vaccine using Sabin strains produced on the serum-free PER.C6® cell culture platform is immunogenic and safe in a non-human primate model. Vaccine 36(46):6979–6987

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Crawt L, Atkinson E, Tedcastle A, Pegg E, Study participants (see Appendix 2), Minor P, Cooper G, Rigsby P, Martin J (2018) EXPERT COMMITTEE ON BIOLOGICAL STANDARDIZATION Geneva, 29 October to 2 November 2018. Report on the WHO collaborative study to establish the 1st International Standard for Sabin inactivated polio vaccine (sIPV). WHO. https://www.who.int/.../BS.2018.2338_sIPV_IS_Collaborative_Study_Report_version. Last accessed June 2019

  82. Chumakov K, Ehrenfeld E (2008) New generation of inactivated poliovirus vaccines for universal immunization after eradication of poliomyelitis. Clin Infect Dis 47(12):1587–1592

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Salk J, van Wezel AL, Stoeckel P, van Steenis G, Schlumberger M, Meyran M, Rey JL, Lapinleimu K, Bottiger M, Cohen H (1981) Theoretical and practical considerations in the application of killed poliovirus vaccine for the control of paralytic poliomyelitis. Dev Biol Stand 47:181–198

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Singer C, Knauert F, Bushar G, Klutch M, Lundquist R, Quinnan GV Jr (1989) Quantitation of poliovirus antigens in inactivated viral vaccines by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using animal sera and monoclonal antibodies. J Biol Stand 17(2):137–150

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Rombaut B, Boeye A, Ferguson M, Minor PD, Mosser A, Rueckert R (1990) Creation of an antigenic site in poliovirus type 1 by assembly of 14 S subunits. Virology 174(1):305–307

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Curry S, Chow M, Hogle JM (1996) The poliovirus 135S particle is infectious. J Virol 70(10):7125–7131

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Harber J, Bernhardt G, Lu HH, Sgro JY, Wimmer E (1995) Canyon rim residues, including antigenic determinants, modulate serotype-specific binding of polioviruses to mutants of the poliovirus receptor. Virology 214(2):559–570

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Smyth M, Pettitt T, Symonds A, Martin J (2003) Identification of the pocket factors in a picornavirus. Arch Virol 148(6):1225–1233

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Belnap DM, McDermott BM Jr, Filman DJ, Cheng N, Trus BL, Zuccola HJ, Racaniello VR, Hogle JM, Steven AC (2000) Three-dimensional structure of poliovirus receptor bound to poliovirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97(1):73–78

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Council NR (2006) Exploring the role of antiviral drugs in the eradication of polio: workshop report. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  91. Salvati AL, De Dominicis A, Tait S, Canitano A, Lahm A, Fiore L (2004) Mechanism of action at the molecular level of the antiviral drug 3(2H)-isoflavene against type 2 poliovirus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48(6):2233–2243

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Koike S, Ise I, Nomoto A (1991) Functional domains of the poliovirus receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88(10):4104–4108

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. WHO t (1998) Scheme adopted for use for L20B cells. Polio LaB Network Quarterly Update IV(4):1–2

    Google Scholar 

  94. Zurbriggen S, Tobler K, Abril C, Diedrich S, Ackermann M, Pallansch MA, Metzler A (2008) Isolation of Sabin-like polioviruses from wastewater in a country using inactivated polio vaccine. Appl Environ Microbiol 74(18):5608–5614

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Abe S, Ota Y, Koike S, Kurata T, Horie H, Nomura T, Hashizume S, Nomoto A (1995) Neurovirulence test for oral live poliovaccines using poliovirus-sensitive transgenic mice. Virology 206(2):1075–1083

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Horie H, Koike S, Kurata T, Sato-Yoshida Y, Ise I, Ota Y, Abe S, Hioki K, Kato H, Taya C et al (1994) Transgenic mice carrying the human poliovirus receptor: new animal models for study of poliovirus neurovirulence. J Virol 68(2):681–688

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Ren RB, Costantini F, Gorgacz EJ, Lee JJ, Racaniello VR (1990) Transgenic mice expressing a human poliovirus receptor: a new model for poliomyelitis. Cell 63(2):353–362

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Martin J (2006) Vaccine-derived poliovirus from long term excretors and the end game of polio eradication. Biologicals 34(2):117–122

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. MacLennan C, Dunn G, Huissoon AP, Kumararatne DS, Martin J, O’Leary P, Thompson RA, Osman H, Wood P, Minor P, Wood DJ, Pillay D (2004) Failure to clear persistent vaccine-derived neurovirulent poliovirus infection in an immunodeficient man. Lancet 363(9420):1509–1513

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Domingo E, Martinez-Salas E, Sobrino F, de la Torre JC, Portela A, Ortin J, Lopez-Galindez C, Perez-Brena P, Villanueva N, Najera R et al (1985) The quasispecies (extremely heterogeneous) nature of viral RNA genome populations: biological relevance – a review. Gene 40(1):1–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Kinnunen L, Huovilainen A, Poyry T, Hovi T (1990) Rapid molecular evolution of wild type 3 poliovirus during infection in individual hosts. J Gen Virol 71(Pt 2):317–324

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Crotty S, Cameron CE, Andino R (2001) RNA virus error catastrophe: direct molecular test by using ribavirin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98(12):6895–6900

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Eigen M (2002) Error catastrophe and antiviral strategy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99(21):13374–13376

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Racaniello VR, Baltimore D (1981) Cloned poliovirus complementary DNA is infectious in mammalian cells. Science 214(4523):916–919

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Pollard SR, Dunn G, Cammack N, Minor PD, Almond JW (1989) Nucleotide sequence of a neurovirulent variant of the type 2 oral poliovirus vaccine. J Virol 63(11):4949–4951

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. van der Werf S, Bradley J, Wimmer E, Studier FW, Dunn JJ (1986) Synthesis of infectious poliovirus RNA by purified T7 RNA polymerase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 83(8):2330–2334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  107. Cello J, Paul AV, Wimmer E (2002) Chemical synthesis of poliovirus cDNA: generation of infectious virus in the absence of natural template. Science 297(5583):1016–1018

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Melnick JL (1996) Current status of poliovirus infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 9(3):293–300

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Bellmunt A, May G, Zell R, Pring-Akerblom P, Verhagen W, Heim A (1999) Evolution of poliovirus type I during 5.5 years of prolonged enteral replication in an immunodeficient patient. Virology 265(2):178–184

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Yang CF, Chen HY, Jorba J, Sun HC, Yang SJ, Lee HC, Huang YC, Lin TY, Chen PJ, Shimizu H, Nishimura Y, Utama A, Pallansch M, Miyamura T, Kew O, Yang JY (2005) Intratypic recombination among lineages of type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus emerging during chronic infection of an immunodeficient patient. J Virol 79(20):12623–12634

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Weil M, Rahav G, Somech R, Stauber T, Alfandari J, Weiss L, Silberstein I, Indenbaum V, Or IB, Mendelson E, Sofer D, Shulman LM (2019) First report of a persistent oropharyngeal infection of type 2 vaccine-derived poliovirus (iVDPV2) in a primary immune deficient (PID) patient after eradication of wild type 2 poliovirus. Int J Infect Dis 83:40–43

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Gustin KE, Sarnow P (2002) Inhibition of nuclear import and alteration of nuclear pore complex composition by rhinovirus. J Virol 76(17):8787–8796

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Fox MP, Otto MJ, McKinlay MA (1986) Prevention of rhinovirus and poliovirus uncoating by WIN 51711, a new antiviral drug. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 30(1):110–116

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Zeichhardt H, Otto MJ, McKinlay MA, Willingmann P, Habermehl KO (1987) Inhibition of poliovirus uncoating by disoxaril (WIN 51711). Virology 160(1):281–285

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Jurgens CK, Barton DJ, Sharma N, Morasco BJ, Ogram SA, Flanegan JB (2006) 2Apro is a multifunctional protein that regulates the stability, translation and replication of poliovirus RNA. Virology 345(2):346–357

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Takegami T, Kuhn RJ, Anderson CW, Wimmer E (1983) Membrane-dependent uridylylation of the genome-linked protein VPg of poliovirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 80(24):7447–7451

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Eigen M (1993) Viral quasispecies. Sci Am 269(1):42–49

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Gavrilin GV, Cherkasova EA, Lipskaya GY, Kew OM, Agol VI (2000) Evolution of circulating wild poliovirus and of vaccine-derived poliovirus in an immunodeficient patient: a unifying model. J Virol 74(16):7381–7390

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Cherkasova E, Laassri M, Chizhikov V, Korotkova E, Dragunsky E, Agol VI, Chumakov K (2003) Microarray analysis of evolution of RNA viruses: evidence of circulation of virulent highly divergent vaccine-derived polioviruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100(16):9398–9403

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Willerth SM, Pedro HA, Pachter L, Humeau LM, Arkin AP, Schaffer DV (2010) Development of a low bias method for characterizing viral populations using next generation sequencing technology. PLoS One 5(10):e13564

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Majumdar M, Sharif S, Klapsa D, Wilton T, Alam MM, Fernandez-Garcia MD, Rehman L, Mujtaba G, McAllister G, Harvala H, Templeton K, Mee ET, Asghar H, Ndiaye K, Minor PD, Martin J (2018) Environmental surveillance reveals complex enterovirus circulation patterns in human populations. Open Forum Infect Dis 5(10):ofy250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Majumdar M, Martin J (2018) Detection by direct next generation sequencing analysis of emerging enterovirus D68 and C109 strains in an environmental sample from Scotland. Front Microbiol 9:1956

    Article  Google Scholar 

  123. Guillot S, Caro V, Cuervo N, Korotkova E, Combiescu M, Persu A, Aubert-Combiescu A, Delpeyroux F, Crainic R (2000) Natural genetic exchanges between vaccine and wild poliovirus strains in humans. J Virol 74(18):8434–8443

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Dahourou G, Guillot S, Le Gall O, Crainic R (2002) Genetic recombination in wild-type poliovirus. J Gen Virol 83(Pt 12):3103–3110

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Zhang Y, Wang H, Zhu S, Li Y, Song L, Liu Y, Liu G, Nishimura Y, Chen L, Yan D, Wang D, An H, Shimizu H, Xu A, Xu W (2010) Characterization of a rare natural intertypic type 2/type 3 penta-recombinant vaccine-derived poliovirus isolated from a child with acute flaccid paralysis. J Gen Virol 91(Pt 2):421–429

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Tao Z, Wang H, Xu A, Zhang Y, Song L, Zhu S, Li Y, Yan D, Liu G, Yoshida H, Liu Y, Feng L, Chosa T, Xu W (2010) Isolation of a recombinant type 3/type 2 poliovirus with a chimeric capsid VP1 from sewage in Shandong, China. Virus Res 150(1–2):56–60

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Blomqvist S, Savolainen-Kopra C, Paananen A, El Bassioni L, El Maamoon Nasr EM, Firstova L, Zamiatina N, Kutateladze T, Roivainen M (2010) Recurrent isolation of poliovirus 3 strains with chimeric capsid protein Vp1 suggests a recombination hot-spot site in Vp1. Virus Res 151(2):246–251

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Brown B, Oberste MS, Maher K, Pallansch MA (2003) Complete genomic sequencing shows that polioviruses and members of human enterovirus species C are closely related in the noncapsid coding region. J Virol 77(16):8973–8984

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Jiang P, Faase JA, Toyoda H, Paul A, Wimmer E, Gorbalenya AE (2007) Evidence for emergence of diverse polioviruses from C-cluster coxsackie A viruses and implications for global poliovirus eradication. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(22):9457–9462

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Riquet FB, Blanchard C, Jegouic S, Balanant J, Guillot S, Vibet MA, Rakoto-Andrianarivelo M, Delpeyroux F (2008) Impact of exogenous sequences on the characteristics of an epidemic type 2 recombinant vaccine-derived poliovirus. J Virol 82(17):8927–8932

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Kirkegaard K, Baltimore D (1986) The mechanism of RNA recombination in poliovirus. Cell 47(3):433–443

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Kew O, Morris-Glasgow V, Landaverde M, Burns C, Shaw J, Garib Z, Andre J, Blackman E, Freeman CJ, Jorba J, Sutter R, Tambini G, Venczel L, Pedreira C, Laender F, Shimizu H, Yoneyama T, Miyamura T, van Der Avoort H, Oberste MS, Kilpatrick D, Cochi S, Pallansch M, de Quadros C (2002) Outbreak of poliomyelitis in Hispaniola associated with circulating type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus. Science 296(5566):356–359

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Estivariz CF, Watkins MA, Handoko D, Rusipah R, Deshpande J, Rana BJ, Irawan E, Widhiastuti D, Pallansch MA, Thapa A, Imari S (2008) A large vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreak on Madura Island – Indonesia, 2005. J Infect Dis 197(3):347–354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. Cherkasova EA, Korotkova EA, Yakovenko ML, Ivanova OE, Eremeeva TP, Chumakov KM, Agol VI (2002) Long-term circulation of vaccine-derived poliovirus that causes paralytic disease. J Virol 76(13):6791–6799

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Chumakov KM, Norwood LP, Parker ML, Dragunsky EM, Ran YX, Levenbook IS (1992) RNA sequence variants in live poliovirus vaccine and their relation to neurovirulence. J Virol 66(2):966–970

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Reyes GR (2001) Ribavirin: recent insights into antiviral mechanisms of action. Curr Opin Drug Discov Devel 4(5):651–656

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Georgescu MM, Balanant J, Ozden S, Crainic R (1997) Random selection: a model for poliovirus infection of the central nervous system. J Gen Virol 78(Pt 8):1819–1828

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Pfeiffer JK, Kirkegaard K (2005) Increased fidelity reduces poliovirus fitness and virulence under selective pressure in mice. PLoS Pathog 1(2):e11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Burns CC, Campagnoli R, Shaw J, Vincent A, Jorba J, Kew O (2009) Genetic inactivation of poliovirus infectivity by increasing the frequencies of CpG and UpA dinucleotides within and across synonymous capsid region codons. J Virol 83(19):9957–9969

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Vignuzzi M, Stone JK, Arnold JJ, Cameron CE, Andino R (2006) Quasispecies diversity determines pathogenesis through cooperative interactions in a viral population. Nature 439(7074):344–348

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Tao B, Fultz PN (1995) Molecular and biological analyses of quasispecies during evolution of a virulent simian immunodeficiency virus, SIVsmmPBj14. J Virol 69(4):2031–2037

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. de la Torre JC, Holland JJ (1990) RNA virus quasispecies populations can suppress vastly superior mutant progeny. J Virol 64(12):6278–6281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  143. Kew OM, Mulders MN, Lipskaya GY, de Silva E, Pallansch MA (1995) Molecular epidemiology of polioviruses. Semin Virol 6:401–405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. Manor Y, Blomqvist S, Sofer D, Alfandari J, Halmut T, Abramovitz B, Mendelson E, Shulman LM (2007) Advanced environmental surveillance and molecular analyses indicate separate importations rather than endemic circulation of wild type 1 poliovirus in Gaza district in 2002. Appl Environ Microbiol 73(18):5954–5958

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Boot HJ, Sonsma J, van Nunen F, Abbink F, Kimman TG, Buisman AM (2007) Determinants of monovalent oral polio vaccine mutagenesis in vaccinated elderly people. Vaccine 25(24):4706–4714

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Kew OM, Sutter RW, Nottay BK, McDonough MJ, Prevots DR, Quick L, Pallansch MA (1998) Prolonged replication of a type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus in an immunodeficient patient. J Clin Microbiol 36(10):2893–2899

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Kew OM, Wright PF, Agol VI, Delpeyroux F, Shimizu H, Nathanson N, Pallansch MA (2004) Circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses: current state of knowledge. Bull World Health Organ 82(1):16–23

    Google Scholar 

  148. Jenkins HE, Aylward RB, Gasasira A, Donnelly CA, Mwanza M, Corander J, Garnier S, Chauvin C, Abanida E, Pate MA, Adu F, Baba M, Grassly NC (2010) Implications of a circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus in Nigeria. N Engl J Med 362(25):2360–2369

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Archimbaud C, Bailly JL, Chambon M, Tournilhac O, Travade P, Peigue-Lafeuille H (2003) Molecular evidence of persistent echovirus 13 meningoencephalitis in a patient with relapsed lymphoma after an outbreak of meningitis in 2000. J Clin Microbiol 41(10):4605–4610

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Martin J, Odoom K, Tuite G, Dunn G, Hopewell N, Cooper G, Fitzharris C, Butler K, Hall WW, Minor PD (2004) Long-term excretion of vaccine-derived poliovirus by a healthy child. J Virol 78(24):13839–13847

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Shulman LM, Manor Y, Sofer D, Handsher R, Swartz T, Delpeyroux F, Mendelson E (2006) Neurovirulent vaccine-derived polioviruses in sewage from highly immune populations. PLoS One 1:e69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  152. Martin J, Dunn G, Hull R, Patel V, Minor PD (2000) Evolution of the Sabin strain of type 3 poliovirus in an immunodeficient patient during the entire 637-day period of virus excretion. J Virol 74(7):3001–3010

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. van der Sanden S, Pallansch MA, van de Kassteele J, El-Sayed N, Sutter RW, Koopmans M, van der Avoort H (2009) Shedding of vaccine viruses with increased antigenic and genetic divergence after vaccination of newborns with monovalent type 1 oral poliovirus vaccine. J Virol 83(17):8693–8704

    Article  Google Scholar 

  154. Yakovenko ML, Cherkasova EA, Rezapkin GV, Ivanova OE, Ivanov AP, Eremeeva TP, Baykova OY, Chumakov KM, Agol VI (2006) Antigenic evolution of vaccine-derived polioviruses: changes in individual epitopes and relative stability of the overall immunological properties. J Virol 80(6):2641–2653

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Shulman LM, Sofer D, Manor Y, Mendelson E, Balanant J, Salvati AL, Delpeyroux F, Fiore L (2011) Antiviral activity of 3(2H)- and 6-chloro-3(2H)-isoflavenes against highly diverged, neurovirulent vaccine-derived, type2 poliovirus sewage isolates. PLoS One 6(5):e18360

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Domingo E, Diez J, Martinez MA, Hernandez J, Holguin A, Borrego B, Mateu MG (1993) New observations on antigenic diversification of RNA viruses. Antigenic variation is not dependent on immune selection. J Gen Virol 74(Pt 10):2039–2045

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Agol VI (2006) Vaccine-derived polioviruses. Biologicals 34(2):103–108

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Blomqvist S, Savolainen C, Laine P, Hirttio P, Lamminsalo E, Penttila E, Joks S, Roivainen M, Hovi T (2004) Characterization of a highly evolved vaccine-derived poliovirus type 3 isolated from sewage in Estonia. J Virol 78(9):4876–4883

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Shulman LM, Manor Y, Sofer D (2010) Poliovirus vaccine and vaccine-derived polioviruses. N Engl J Med 363(19):1870; author reply 1870–1871

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Korotkova EA, Park R, Cherkasova EA, Lipskaya GY, Chumakov KM, Feldman EV, Kew OM, Agol VI (2003) Retrospective analysis of a local cessation of vaccination against poliomyelitis: a possible scenario for the future. J Virol 77(23):12460–12465

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Gumede N, Venter M, Lentsoane O, Muyembe-Tamfum J, Yogolelo R, Puren A, Schoub BD (2010) Identification of vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVS) in the DRC from 2005 to 2010. Commun Dis Surveill Bull 8(3):43–45

    Google Scholar 

  162. Resik S, Tejeda A, Lago PM, Diaz M, Carmenates A, Sarmiento L, Alemani N, Galindo B, Burton A, Friede M, Landaverde M, Sutter RW (2010) Randomized controlled clinical trial of fractional doses of inactivated poliovirus vaccine administered intradermally by needle-free device in Cuba. J Infect Dis 201(9):1344–1352

    Article  Google Scholar 

  163. Mohammed AJ, AlAwaidy S, Bawikar S, Kurup PJ, Elamir E, Shaban MM, Sharif SM, van der Avoort HG, Pallansch MA, Malankar P, Burton A, Sreevatsava M, Sutter RW (2010) Fractional doses of inactivated poliovirus vaccine in Oman. N Engl J Med 362(25):2351–2359

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Nirmal S, Cherian T, Samuel BU, Rajasingh J, Raghupathy P, John TJ (1998) Immune response of infants to fractional doses of intradermally administered inactivated poliovirus vaccine. Vaccine 16(9–10):928–931

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Ehrenfeld E, Glass RI, Agol VI, Chumakov K, Dowdle W, John TJ, Katz SL, Miller M, Breman JG, Modlin J, Wright P (2008) Immunisation against poliomyelitis: moving forward. Lancet 371(9621):1385–1387

    Article  Google Scholar 

  166. Yakovenko ML, Korotkova EA, Ivanova OE, Eremeeva TP, Samoilovich E, Uhova I, Gavrilin GV, Agol VI (2009) Evolution of the Sabin vaccine into pathogenic derivatives without appreciable changes in antigenic properties: need for improvement of current poliovirus surveillance. J Virol 83(7):3402–3406

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Modlin JF (2010) The bumpy road to polio eradication. N Engl J Med 362(25):2346–2349

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Buttinelli G, Donati V, Fiore S, Marturano J, Plebani A, Balestri P, Soresina AR, Vivarelli R, Delpeyroux F, Martin J, Fiore L (2003) Nucleotide variation in Sabin type 2 poliovirus from an immunodeficient patient with poliomyelitis. J Gen Virol 84(Pt 5):1215–1221

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Arita I, Nakane M, Fenner F (2006) Public health. Is polio eradication realistic? Science 312(5775):852–854

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Chumakov K, Ehrenfeld E, Wimmer E, Agol VI (2007) Vaccination against polio should not be stopped. Nat Rev Microbiol 5(12):952–958

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Shulman LM, Manor Y, Sofer D, Mendelson E (2009) Type 2 polio still in our midst. Science 324(5925):334

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. WHO. 14th meeting of the Global Commission for the Certification of Poliomyelitis Eradication (GCC). WHO. www.polioeradication.org/Portals/0/Document/Resources/14thGCC_mt_Report.pdf. Last accessed June 2016

  173. WHO (2004) WHO global action plan for laboratory containment of wild polioviruses. WHO/V&B/03.11 2004, 2nd edn. WHO, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  174. WHO (2015) WHO Global Action Plan to minimize poliovirus facility-associated risk after type-specific eradication of wild polioviruses and sequential cessation of oral polio vaccine use (GAPIII). WHO http://www.polioeradication.org/Posteradication/Certification.aspx. Last accessed July 2015

  175. WHO (2016) GAP III Containment Certification Scheme. http://www.who.int: WHO https://www.google.co.il/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0ahUKEwjdqMuNh9XYAhUHpKQKHS2sArIQFgglMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fpolioeradication.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F10%2FCCS.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1b5zAv-XeildHI7nDR3Mwl. Last accessed Jan 2018

  176. Furione M, Guillot S, Otelea D, Balanant J, Candrea A, Crainic R (1993) Polioviruses with natural recombinant genomes isolated from vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. Virology 196(1):199–208

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Lipskaya GY, Muzychenko AR, Kutitova OK, Maslova SV, Equestre M, Drozdov SG, Bercoff RP, Agol VI (1991) Frequent isolation of intertypic poliovirus recombinants with serotype 2 specificity from vaccine-associated polio cases. J Med Virol 35(4):290–296

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Georgescu MM, Delpeyroux F, Tardy-Panit M, Balanant J, Combiescu M, Combiescu AA, Guillot S, Crainic R (1994) High diversity of poliovirus strains isolated from the central nervous system from patients with vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. J Virol 68(12):8089–8101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Minor PD, John A, Ferguson M, Icenogle JP (1986) Antigenic and molecular evolution of the vaccine strain of type 3 poliovirus during the period of excretion by a primary vaccinee. J Gen Virol 67(Pt 4):693–706

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Shulman LM, Manor Y, Sofer D, Swartz T, Mendelson E (2006) Oral poliovaccine: will it help eradicate polio or cause the next epidemic? Isr Med Assoc J 8(5):312–315

    Google Scholar 

  181. Burns CC, Shaw J, Campagnoli R, Jorba J, Vincent A, Quay J, Kew O (2006) Modulation of poliovirus replicative fitness in HeLa cells by deoptimization of synonymous codon usage in the capsid region. J Virol 80(7):3259–3272

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Macadam AJ, Ferguson G, Stone DM, Meredith J, Knowlson S, Auda G, Almond JW, Minor PD (2006) Rational design of genetically stable, live-attenuated poliovirus vaccines of all three serotypes: relevance to poliomyelitis eradication. J Virol 80(17):8653–8663

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Fox H, Knowlson S, Minor PD, Macadam AJ (2017) Genetically thermo-stabilised, immunogenic poliovirus empty capsids; a strategy for non-replicating vaccines. PLoS Pathog 13(1):e1006117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  184. Dowdle W, van der Avoort H, de Gourville E, Delpeyroux F, Desphande J, Hovi T, Martin J, Pallansch M, Kew O, Wolff C (2006) Containment of polioviruses after eradication and OPV cessation: characterizing risks to improve management. Risk Anal 26(6):1449–1469

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. Wood DJ (2006) Polio vaccine: the first 50 years and beyond. Summary of the meeting and next steps. Biologicals 34(2):171–174

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Horstmann DM, Mc CR, Mascola AD (1954) Viremia in human poliomyelitis. J Exp Med 99(4):355–369

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Steigman AJ, Sabin AB (1949) Antibody response of patients with poliomyelitis to virus recovered from their own alimentary tract. J Exp Med 90(4):349–372

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Bodian D, Paffenbarger RS Jr (1954) Poliomyelitis infection in households; frequency of viremia and specific antibody response. Am J Hyg 60(1):83–98

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Racaniello VR, Ren R (1996) Poliovirus biology and pathogenesis. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 206:305–325

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Alexander JP Jr, Gary HE Jr, Pallansch MA (1997) Duration of poliovirus excretion and its implications for acute flaccid paralysis surveillance: a review of the literature. J Infect Dis 175(Suppl 1):S176–S182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  191. Minor PD (1992) The molecular biology of poliovaccines. J Gen Virol 73(Pt 12):3065–3077

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Mas Lago P, Caceres VM, Galindo MA, Gary HE Jr, Valcarcel M, Barrios J, Sarmiento L, Avalos I, Bravo JA, Palomera R, Bello M, Sutter RW, Pallansch MA, de Quadros CA (2001) Persistence of vaccine-derived poliovirus following a mass vaccination campaign in Cuba: implications for stopping polio vaccination after global eradication. Int J Epidemiol 30(5):1029–1034

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Hovi T, Shulman LM, van der Avoort H, Deshpande J, Roivainen M, De Gourville EM (2012) Role of environmental poliovirus surveillance in global polio eradication and beyond. Epidemiol Infect 140(1):1–13

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Cohen-Abbo A, Culley BS, Reed GW, Sannella EC, Mace RL, Robertson SE, Wright PF (1995) Seroresponse to trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine as a function of dosage interval. Pediatr Infect Dis J 14(2):100–106

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Gromeier M, Wimmer E (1998) Mechanism of injury-provoked poliomyelitis. J Virol 72(6):5056–5060

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Ramlow J, Alexander M, LaPorte R, Kaufmann C, Kuller L (1992) Epidemiology of the post-polio syndrome. Am J Epidemiol 136(7):769–786

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Gonzalez H, Olsson T, Borg K (2010) Management of postpolio syndrome. Lancet Neurol 9(6):634–642

    Article  Google Scholar 

  198. Ogra PL, Karzon DT (1969) Distribution of poliovirus antibody in serum, nasopharynx and alimentary tract following segmental immunization of lower alimentary tract with poliovaccine. J Immunol 102(6):1423–1430

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Ogra PL, Karzon DT (1969) Poliovirus antibody response in serum and nasal secretions following intranasal inoculation with inactivated poliovaccine. J Immunol 102(1):15–23

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Ogra PL (1995) Comparative evaluation of immunization with live attenuated and inactivated poliovirus vaccines. Ann N Y Acad Sci 754:97–107

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Shulman LM, Manor Y, Handsher R, Delpeyroux F, Halmut T, Silberstein I, Alfandari J, Quay J, Robinov J, Kew OM, Crainic R, Mendelson E (2001) Characterization of a highly evolved Sabin 2 polio strains isolated from sewage. In: Annual meeting of the ISM. ISM News, Bersheva, p 34

    Google Scholar 

  202. Sofer D, Handsher R, Abramovitz B, Yaari K, Manor Y, Halmut T, Swartz T, Mendelson E, Shulman LM (2008) Determining vaccination efficacy: is the current minimum anti-polio neutralization antibody titer of >1:8 against Sabin strains high enough? Meeting of the three division of the international union of microbiological societies, Istanbul

    Google Scholar 

  203. Valtanen S, Roivainen M, Piirainen L, Stenvik M, Hovi T (2000) Poliovirus-specific intestinal antibody responses coincide with decline of poliovirus excretion. J Infect Dis 182(1):1–5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Nishio O, Sumi J, Sakae K, Ishihara Y, Isomura S, Inouye S (1990) Fecal IgA antibody responses after oral poliovirus vaccination in infants and elder children. Microbiol Immunol 34(8):683–689

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Ogra PL, Fishaut M, Gallagher MR (1980) Viral vaccination via the mucosal routes. Rev Infect Dis 2(3):352–369

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Samoilovich E, Roivainen M, Titov LP, Hovi T (2003) Serotype-specific mucosal immune response and subsequent poliovirus replication in vaccinated children. J Med Virol 71(2):274–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  207. Onorato IM, Modlin JF, McBean AM, Thoms ML, Losonsky GA, Bernier RH (1991) Mucosal immunity induced by enhance-potency inactivated and oral polio vaccines. J Infect Dis 163(1):1–6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Vidor E, Caudrelier P, Plotkin S (1994) The place of DTP/eIPV vaccine in routine paediatric vaccination. Rev Med Virol 4(4):261–277

    Article  Google Scholar 

  209. Laassri M, Lottenbach K, Belshe R, Wolff M, Rennels M, Plotkin S, Chumakov K (2005) Effect of different vaccination schedules on excretion of oral poliovirus vaccine strains. J Infect Dis 192(12):2092–2098

    Article  Google Scholar 

  210. Swartz TA, Green MS, Handscher R, Sofer D, Cohen-Dar M, Shohat T, Habib S, Barak E, Dror Z, Somekh E, Peled-Leviathan T, Yulzari R, Libling A, Mendelson E, Shulman LM (2008) Intestinal immunity following a combined enhanced inactivated polio vaccine/oral polio vaccine programme in Israel. Vaccine 26(8):1083–1090

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Lasch EE, Livni E, Englander T, el-Massri M, Marcus O, Joshua H (1978) The cell mediated immune response in acute poliomyelitis and its use in early diagnosis. Dev Biol Stand 41:179–182

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Samuel BU, Cherian T, Sridharan G, Mukundan P, John TJ (1991) Immune response to intradermally injected inactivated poliovirus vaccine. Lancet 338(8763):343–344

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Katrak K, Mahon BP, Minor PD, Mills KH (1991) Cellular and humoral immune responses to poliovirus in mice: a role for helper T cells in heterotypic immunity to poliovirus. J Gen Virol 72(Pt 5):1093–1098

    Article  Google Scholar 

  214. Minor PD (2004) Polio eradication, cessation of vaccination and re-emergence of disease. Nat Rev Microbiol 2(6):473–482

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Plotkin SA, Vidor E (2008) Poliovirus vaccine – inactivated. In: Plotkin SA, Orenstein WA, Offit PA (eds) Vaccines, 5th edn. Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia, pp 605–629

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  216. Paul J (1971) A history of poliomyelitis. Yale University Press, New Haven

    Google Scholar 

  217. Griffiths E, Wood D, Barreto L (2006) Polio vaccine: the first 50 years and beyond. Biologicals 34(2):73–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  218. Burns CC, Diop OM, Sutter RW, Kew OM (2014) Vaccine-derived polioviruses. J Infect Dis 210(Suppl 1):S283–S293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  219. Nathanson N, Langmuir AD (1963) The cutter incident. Poliomyelitis following formaldehyde- inactivated poliovirus vaccination in the United States during the Spring of 1955. I. Background. Am J Hyg 78:16–28

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Nathanson N, Langmuir AD (1963) The cutter incident. Poliomyelitis following formaldehyde- inactivated poliovirus vaccination in the United States during the Spring of 1955. II. Relationship of poliomyelitis to cutter vaccine. Am J Hyg 78:29–60

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Eddy BE, Borman GS, Berkeley WH, Young RD (1961) Tumors induced in hamsters by injection of rhesus monkey kidney cell extracts. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 107:191–197

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Mortimer EA Jr, Lepow ML, Gold E, Robbins FC, Burton GJ, Fraumeni JF Jr (1981) Long-term follow-up of persons inadvertently inoculated with SV40 as neonates. N Engl J Med 305(25):1517–1518

    Article  Google Scholar 

  223. Shah KV (2007) SV40 and human cancer: a review of recent data. Int J Cancer 120(2):215–223

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Shah KV, Galloway DA, Knowles WA, Viscidi RP (2004) Simian virus 40 (SV40) and human cancer: a review of the serological data. Rev Med Virol 14(4):231–239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  225. Swartz TA (2008) The epidemiology of polio in Israel. An historical perspective. Dyonon Pub. Ltd., Tel Aviv

    Google Scholar 

  226. Tulchinsky T, Abed Y, Handsher R, Toubassi N, Acker C, Melnick J (1994) Successful control of poliomyelitis by a combined OPV/IPV polio vaccine program in the West Bank and Gaza, 1978–93. Isr J Med Sci 30(5–6):489–494

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. Tulchinsky TH, Goldblum N (2001) Polio immunization. N Engl J Med 344(1):61–62; author reply 62–63

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Slater PE, Orenstein WA, Morag A, Avni A, Handsher R, Green MS, Costin C, Yarrow A, Rishpon S, Havkin O et al (1990) Poliomyelitis outbreak in Israel in 1988: a report with two commentaries. Lancet 335(8699):1192–1195; discussion 1196–1198

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Kawamura N, Kohara M, Abe S, Komatsu T, Tago K, Arita M, Nomoto A (1989) Determinants in the 5′ noncoding region of poliovirus Sabin 1 RNA that influence the attenuation phenotype. J Virol 63(3):1302–1309

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Nomoto A, Omata T, Toyoda H, Kuge S, Horie H, Kataoka Y, Genba Y, Nakano Y, Imura N (1982) Complete nucleotide sequence of the attenuated poliovirus Sabin 1 strain genome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 79(19):5793–5797

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Christodoulou C, Colbere-Garapin F, Macadam A, Taffs LF, Marsden S, Minor P, Horaud F (1990) Mapping of mutations associated with neurovirulence in monkeys infected with Sabin 1 poliovirus revertants selected at high temperature. J Virol 64(10):4922–4929

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Macadam AJ, Pollard SR, Ferguson G, Skuce R, Wood D, Almond JW, Minor PD (1993) Genetic basis of attenuation of the Sabin type 2 vaccine strain of poliovirus in primates. Virology 192(1):18–26

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Ren RB, Moss EG, Racaniello VR (1991) Identification of two determinants that attenuate vaccine-related type 2 poliovirus. J Virol 65(3):1377–1382

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Macadam AJ, Arnold C, Howlett J, John A, Marsden S, Taffs F, Reeve P, Hamada N, Wareham K, Almond J et al (1989) Reversion of the attenuated and temperature-sensitive phenotypes of the Sabin type 3 strain of poliovirus in vaccinees. Virology 172(2):408–414

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Westrop GD, Wareham KA, Evans DM, Dunn G, Minor PD, Magrath DI, Taffs F, Marsden S, Skinner MA, Schild GC et al (1989) Genetic basis of attenuation of the Sabin type 3 oral poliovirus vaccine. J Virol 63(3):1338–1344

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Minor PD, Macadam AJ, Stone DM, Almond JW (1993) Genetic basis of attenuation of the Sabin oral poliovirus vaccines. Biologicals 21(4):357–363

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Sutter RW, Cochi SL, Melnick JL (1999) Live attenuated poliovirus vaccines. In: Plotkin S, Orenstein WA (eds) Vaccines, 3rd edn. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, pp 364–408

    Google Scholar 

  238. Okonko IO, Babalola ET, Adedeji AO (2008) A. OB, Ogun AA, Nkang AO, Adu FD. The role of vaccine derived polioviruses in the global eradication of polio-the Nigeria experience as a case study. Biotechnol Mol Biol Rev 3(6):135–147

    Google Scholar 

  239. Jorba J, Diop OM, Iber J, Henderson E, Zhao K, Sutter RW, Wassilak SGF, Burns CC (2018) Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses – worldwide, January 2017–June 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 67(42):1189–1194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  240. MMWR T (2001) Apparent global interruption of wild poliovirus type 2 transmission. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 50(12):222–224

    Google Scholar 

  241. Grassly NC, Wenger J, Durrani S, Bahl S, Deshpande JM, Sutter RW, Heymann DL, Aylward RB (2007) Protective efficacy of a monovalent oral type 1 poliovirus vaccine: a case-control study. Lancet 369(9570):1356–1362

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Wkly Epidemiol Record (2009) Advisory Committee on poliomyelitis eradication: recommendations on the use of bivalent oral poliovirus vaccine types 1 and 3. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 84(29):289–290

    Google Scholar 

  243. Salk JE, Krech U, Youngner JS, Bennett BL, Lewis LJ, Bazeley PL (1954) Formaldehyde treatment and safety testing of experimental poliomyelitis vaccines. Am J Public Health Nations Health 44(5):563–570

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Jenkins HE, Aylward RB, Gasasira A, Donnelly CA, Abanida EA, Koleosho-Adelekan T, Grassly NC (2008) Effectiveness of immunization against paralytic poliomyelitis in Nigeria. N Engl J Med 359(16):1666–1674

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Wright PF, Modlin JF (2008) The demise and rebirth of polio – a modern phoenix? J Infect Dis 197(3):335–336

    Article  Google Scholar 

  246. Minor PD, Schild GC, Ferguson M, Mackay A, Magrath DI, John A, Yates JP, Spitz M (1982) Genetic and antigenic variation in type 3 polioviruses: characterization of strains by monoclonal antibodies and T1 oligonucleotide mapping. J Gen Virol 61(Pt 2):167–176

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Simoes EA, Padmini B, Steinhoff MC, Jadhav M, John TJ (1985) Antibody response of infants to two doses of inactivated poliovirus vaccine of enhanced potency. Am J Dis Child 139(10):977–980

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  248. Okayasu H, Sein C, Hamidi A, Bakker WA, Sutter RW (2016) Development of inactivated poliovirus vaccine from Sabin strains: a progress report. Biologicals 44(6):581–587

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. Arbo A, Falleiros-Arlant LH, Lopez EL, Brea Del Castillo J, Martinez de Cuellar C, Moreno G, Rolon R, Cerda J, Eguiazu S, Study Group of Sociedad Paraguaya de P (2019) Remarks on the possibility of introducing the fractionated dose of the inactivated poliomyelitis vaccine in the Latin American Child Immunization Schedule. Rev Chil Infectol 36(1):83–90

    Article  Google Scholar 

  250. Gamage D, Mach O, Palihawadana P, Zhang Y, Weldon WC, Oberste MS, Gunasena S, Sutter RW (2018) Boosting of mucosal immunity after fractional-dose inactivated poliovirus vaccine. J Infect Dis 218(12):1876–1882

    Article  Google Scholar 

  251. Li Z, Ding W, Guo Q, Liu Z, Zhu Z, Song S, Li W, Liao G (2018) Analysis of the dose-sparing effect of adjuvanted Sabin-inactivated poliovirus vaccine (sIPV). Hum Vaccin Immunother 14(8):1987–1994

    Article  Google Scholar 

  252. Lindgren LM, Tingskov PN, Justesen AH, Nedergaard BS, Olsen KJ, Andreasen LV, Kromann I, Sorensen C, Dietrich J, Thierry-Carstensen B (2017) First-in-human safety and immunogenicity investigations of three adjuvanted reduced dose inactivated poliovirus vaccines (IPV-Al SSI) compared to full dose IPV Vaccine SSI when given as a booster vaccination to adolescents with a history of IPV vaccination at 3, 5, 12months and 5years of age. Vaccine 35(4):596–604

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Song S, Liu Z, Zhou J, Cai W, Yang H, Ma L, Gao J, Li W, Liao G (2019) An adjuvant compound that enhances immunogenicity at fractional doses of the Sabin-inactivated poliovirus vaccine (sIPV) with a long duration of protection in a rat model. J Med Virol 91(1):14–21

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Thomassen YE, Bakker WA (2015) sIPV process development for costs reduction. Vaccine 33(35):4307–4312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  255. Modlin J, Chumakov K (2020) Sabin strain inactivated polio vaccine for the polio endgame. J Infect Dis 221(4):504–505

    Google Scholar 

  256. Sanders BP, de Los Rios Oakes I, van Hoek V, Bockstal V, Kamphuis T, Uil TG, Song Y, Cooper G, Crawt LE, Martin J, Zahn R, Lewis J, Wimmer E, Custers JH, Schuitemaker H, Cello J, Edo-Matas D (2016) Cold-adapted viral attenuation (CAVA): highly temperature sensitive polioviruses as novel vaccine strains for a next generation inactivated poliovirus vaccine. PLoS Pathog 12(3):e1005483

    Article  Google Scholar 

  257. De Palma AM, Purstinger G, Wimmer E, Patick AK, Andries K, Rombaut B, De Clercq E, Neyts J (2008) Potential use of antiviral agents in polio eradication. Emerg Infect Dis 14(4):545–551

    Article  Google Scholar 

  258. Pevear DC, Tull TM, Seipel ME, Groarke JM (1999) Activity of pleconaril against enteroviruses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43(9):2109–2115

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. Oberste MS, Moore D, Anderson B, Pallansch MA, Pevear DC, Collett MS (2009) In vitro antiviral activity of V-073 against polioviruses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53(10):4501–4503

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. Collett MS, Hincks JR, Benschop K, Duizer E, van der Avoort H, Rhoden E, Liu H, Oberste MS, McKinlay MA, Hartford M (2017) Antiviral activity of Pocapavir in a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled human oral poliovirus vaccine challenge model. J Infect Dis 215(3):335–343

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Levy AH (1962) The uses of gamma globulins in the prophylaxis of infection. J Chronic Dis 15:589–598

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  262. McKinney RE Jr, Katz SL, Wilfert CM (1987) Chronic enteroviral meningoencephalitis in agammaglobulinemic patients. Rev Infect Dis 9(2):334–356

    Article  Google Scholar 

  263. Jorba J, Diop OM, Iber J, Henderson E, Sutter RW, Wassilak SGF, Burns CC (2017) Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses – worldwide, January 2016–June 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 66(43):1185–1191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  264. Shulman LM, Martin J, Sofer D, Burns CC, Manor Y, Hindiyeh M, Gavrilin E, Wilton T, Moran-Gilad J, Gamzo R, Mendelson E, Grotto I, Group GPI, Group GPIG-PI (2015) Genetic analysis and characterization of wild poliovirus type 1 during sustained transmission in a population with >95% vaccine coverage, Israel 2013. Clin Infect Dis 60(7):1057–1064

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  265. Kaliner E, Kopel E, Anis E, Mendelson E, Moran-Gilad J, Shulman LM, Singer SR, Manor Y, Somekh E, Rishpon S, Leventhal A, Rubin L, Tasher D, Honovich M, Moerman L, Shohat T, Bassal R, Sofer D, Gdalevich M, Lev B, Gamzu R, Grotto I (2015) The Israeli public health response to wild poliovirus importation. Lancet Infect Dis 15:1236–1242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  266. Shulman LM, Martin J, Sofer D, Burns CC, Manor Y, Hindiyeh MY, Gavrilin E, Wilton T, Moran-Gilad J, Gamzu R, Mendelson E, Grotto I, GPI_group (2014) Genetic analysis and characterization of wild poliovirus type 1 during sustained transmission in a population with >95% vaccine coverage, Israel 2013. Clin Infect Dis 60:1057–1064

    Article  Google Scholar 

  267. Shulman LM, Gavrilin E, Jorba J, Martin J, Burns CC, Manor Y, Moran-Gilad J, Sofer D, Hindiyeh MY, Gamzu R, Mendelson E, Grotto I, Genotype-Phenotype_Identification_(GPI)_group (2014) Molecular epidemiology of silent introduction and sustained transmission of wild poliovirus type 1, Israel, 2013. Euro Surveill 19(7):pii=20709. Available online: http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=20709

    Article  Google Scholar 

  268. Anis E, Kopel E, Singer SR, Kaliner E, Moerman L, Moran-Gilad J, Sofer D, Manor Y, Shulman LM, Mendelson E, Gdalevich M, Lev B, Gamzu R, Grotto I (2013) Insidious reintroduction of wild poliovirus into Israel, 2013. Euro Surveill 18(38):20586

    Article  Google Scholar 

  269. Breman JG, Arita I (1980) The confirmation and maintenance of smallpox eradication. N Engl J Med 303(22):1263–1273

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Smith J, Leke R, Adams A, Tangermann RH (2004) Certification of polio eradication: process and lessons learned. Bull World Health Organ 82(1):24–30

    Google Scholar 

  271. Hull HF, Ward NA, Hull BP, Milstien JB, de Quadros C (1994) Paralytic poliomyelitis: seasoned strategies, disappearing disease. Lancet 343(8909):1331–1337

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Dove AW, Racaniello VR (1997) The polio eradication effort: should vaccine eradication be next? Science 277(5327):779–780

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Hull HF, Aylward RB (1997) Ending polio immunization. Science 277(5327):780

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  274. Wood DJ, Sutter RW, Dowdle WR (2000) Stopping poliovirus vaccination after eradication: issues and challenges. Bull World Health Organ 78(3):347–357

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  275. Wright PF, Kim-Farley RJ, de Quadros CA, Robertson SE, Scott RM, Ward NA, Henderson RH (1991) Strategies for the global eradication of poliomyelitis by the year 2000. N Engl J Med 325(25):1774–1779

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  276. WHO (1996) Field guide for supplementary activities aimed at achieving polio eradication, 1996 revision: WHO/EPI/GEN/95.01 Rev.1. WHO, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  277. Avellon A, Cabrerizo M, de Miguel T, Perez-Brena P, Tenorio A, Perez JL, de Aragon MV, Trallero G (2008) Paralysis case and contact spread of recombinant vaccine-derived poliovirus, Spain. Emerg Infect Dis 14(11):1807–1809

    Article  Google Scholar 

  278. Alexander JP, Ehresmann K, Seward J, Wax G, Harriman K, Fuller S, Cebelinski EA, Chen Q, Jorba J, Kew OM, Pallansch MA, Oberste MS, Schleiss M, Davis JP, Warshawsky B, Squires S, Hull HF, Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus Investigations G (2009) Transmission of imported vaccine-derived poliovirus in an undervaccinated community in Minnesota. J Infect Dis 199(3):391–397

    Article  Google Scholar 

  279. Hull BP, Dowdle WR (1997) Poliovirus surveillance: building the global polio laboratory network. J Infect Dis 175(Suppl 1):S113–S116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  280. Wkly Epidemiol Record (2002) Expanding contributions of the global laboratory network for poliomyelitis eradication, 2000–2001. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 77(17):133–137

    Google Scholar 

  281. Wkly Epidemiol Record (2003) Laboratory surveillance for wild and vaccine-derived polioviruses, January 2002–June 2003. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 78(39):341–346

    Google Scholar 

  282. Wkly Epidemiol Record (2004) Laboratory surveillance for wild and vaccine-derived polioviruses, January 2003–June 2004. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 79(44):393–398

    Google Scholar 

  283. de Gourville E, Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Sangrujee N, Pallansch MA, Thompson KM (2006) Global surveillance and the value of information: the case of the global polio laboratory network. Risk Anal 26(6):1557–1569

    Article  Google Scholar 

  284. van der Avoort HG, Hull BP, Hovi T, Pallansch MA, Kew OM, Crainic R, Wood DJ, Mulders MN, van Loon AM (1995) Comparative study of five methods for intratypic differentiation of polioviruses. J Clin Microbiol 33(10):2562–2566

    Article  Google Scholar 

  285. De L, Nottay B, Yang CF, Holloway BP, Pallansch M, Kew O (1995) Identification of vaccine-related polioviruses by hybridization with specific RNA probes. J Clin Microbiol 33(3):562–571

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  286. Kilpatrick DR, Nottay B, Yang CF, Yang SJ, Mulders MN, Holloway BP, Pallansch MA, Kew OM (1996) Group-specific identification of polioviruses by PCR using primers containing mixed-base or deoxyinosine residue at positions of codon degeneracy. J Clin Microbiol 34(12):2990–2996

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  287. Balanant J, Guillot S, Candrea A, Delpeyroux F, Crainic R (1991) The natural genomic variability of poliovirus analyzed by a restriction fragment length polymorphism assay. Virology 184(2):645–654

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  288. Kilpatrick DR, Yang CF, Ching K, Vincent A, Iber J, Campagnoli R, Mandelbaum M, De L, Yang SJ, Nix A, Kew OM (2009) Rapid group-, serotype-, and vaccine strain-specific identification of poliovirus isolates by real-time reverse transcription-PCR using degenerate primers and probes containing deoxyinosine residues. J Clin Microbiol 47(6):1939–1941

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  289. Shulman LM, Manor Y, Sofer D, Mendelson E (2012) Bioterrorism and surveillance for infectious diseases – lessons from poliovirus and enteric virus surveillance. J Bioterror Biodef S4:004

    Google Scholar 

  290. WHO (2004) Polio laboratory manual. WHO/IVB/04.10, 4th edn. WHO, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  291. Deshpande JM, Shetty SJ, Siddiqui ZA (2003) Environmental surveillance system to track wild poliovirus transmission. Appl Environ Microbiol 69(5):2919–2927

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  292. Wkly Epidemiol Record (2006) Resurgence of wild poliovirus type 1 transmission and effect of importation into polio-free countries, 2002–2005. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 81(7):63–68

    Google Scholar 

  293. Wkly Epidemiol Record (2010) Poliomyelitis in Tajikistan – first importation since Europe certified polio-free. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 85(18):157–158

    Google Scholar 

  294. WHO (2013) Poliovirus detected from environmental samples in Egypt. WHO Global Alert and Response (GAR). http://www.who.int/csr/don/2013_02_11/en/. Last accessed 17 May 2015

  295. Shulman LM, Gavrilin E, Jorba J, Martin J, Burns CC, Manor Y, Moran-Gilad J, Sofer D, Hindiyeh MY, Gamzu R, Mendelson E, Grotto I (2014) Molecular epidemiology of silent introduction and sustained transmission of wild poliovirus type 1, Israel, 2013. Euro Surveill 19(7):20709

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  296. WHO (2013) Polio in the Syrian Arab Republic – update. Emergencies preparedness, response. Published on-line: WHO. http://www.who.int/csr/don/2013_11_11polio/en/. Last accessed Mar 2016

  297. Aylward RB, Alwan A (2014) Polio in Syria. Lancet 383(9916):489–491

    Article  Google Scholar 

  298. WHO (2015) Enterovirus surveillance guidelines – guidelines for enterovirus surveillance in support of the polio eradication initiative. WHO Europe and CDC, Copenhagen, p 44

    Google Scholar 

  299. Shulman LM (2019) The Status of Supplementary Poliovirus Surveillance in WHO Member States in the European Region, 2013–17. Submitted to the WHO European Regional Certification Commission for Polio

    Google Scholar 

  300. WHO (2003) Guidelines for environmental surveillance of poliovirus circulation. WHO, Department of Vaccines and Biologicals. http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/67854. Last accessed 23 July 2014

  301. WHO (2015) Guidelines on environmental surveillance for detection of polioviruses working draft -March 2015. WHO, Department of Vaccines and Biologicals. Downloadable from https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=2ahUKEwiI2sCr9sHdAhWKkCwKHVWNC80QFjABegQICBAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fpolioeradication.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F07%2FGPLN_GuidelinesES_April2015.pdf&usg=AOvVaw0kZaG4JxKFrRwM6UrjVLdM. Last accessed Sept 2018

  302. Manor Y, Handsher R, Halmut T, Neuman M, Abramovitz B, Mates A, Mendelson E (1999) A double-selective tissue culture system for isolation of wild-type poliovirus from sewage applied in a long-term environmental surveillance. Appl Environ Microbiol 65(4):1794–1797

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  303. Nakano JH, Hatch MH, Thieme ML, Nottay B (1978) Parameters for differentiating vaccine-derived and wild poliovirus strains. Prog Med Virol 24:178–206

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  304. Vinje J, Gregoricus N, Martin J, Gary HE Jr, Caceres VM, Venczel L, Macadam A, Dobbins JG, Burns C, Wait D, Ko G, Landaverde M, Kew O, Sobsey MD (2004) Isolation and characterization of circulating type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus from sewage and stream waters in Hispaniola. J Infect Dis 189(7):1168–1175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  305. Shulman LM, Handsher R, Yang CF, Yang SJ, Manor J, Vonsover A, Grossman Z, Pallansch M, Mendelson E, Kew OM (2000) Resolution of the pathways of poliovirus type 1 transmission during an outbreak. J Clin Microbiol 38(3):945–952

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  306. Manor Y, Handsher R, Halmut T, Neuman M, Bobrov A, Rudich H, Vonsover A, Shulman L, Kew O, Mendelson E (1999) Detection of poliovirus circulation by environmental surveillance in the absence of clinical cases in Israel and the Palestinian authority. J Clin Microbiol 37(6):1670–1675

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  307. Ranta J, Hovi T, Arjas E (2001) Poliovirus surveillance by examining sewage water specimens: studies on detection probability using simulation models. Risk Anal 21(6):1087–1096

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  308. Duizer E, Ruijs WL, van der Weijden CP, Timen A (2017) Response to a wild poliovirus type 2 (WPV2)-shedding event following accidental exposure to WPV2, the Netherlands, April 2017. Euro Surveill 22(21):30542

    Article  Google Scholar 

  309. Hovi T, Stenvik M, Partanen H, Kangas A (2001) Poliovirus surveillance by examining sewage specimens. Quantitative recovery of virus after introduction into sewerage at remote upstream location. Epidemiol Infect 127(1):101–106

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  310. Lodder WJ, Buisman AM, Rutjes SA, Heijne JC, Teunis PF, de Roda Husman AM (2012) Feasibility of quantitative environmental surveillance in poliovirus eradication strategies. Appl Environ Microbiol 78(11):3800–3805

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  311. Brouwer AF, Eisenberg JNS, Pomeroy CD, Shulman LM, Hindiyeh M, Manor Y, Grotto I, Koopman JS, Eisenberg MC (2018) Epidemiology of the silent polio outbreak in Rahat, Israel, based on modeling of environmental surveillance data. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 115(45):E10625–E10633

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  312. Yaari R, Kaliner E, Grotto I, Katriel G, Moran-Gilad J, Sofer D, Mendelson E, Miller E, Huppert A, POG group, Anis E, Kopel E, Manor Y, Mor O, Shulman L, Singer R, Weil M (2016) Modeling the spread of polio in an IPV-vaccinated population: lessons learned from the 2013 silent outbreak in southern Israel. BMC Med 14(1):95

    Article  Google Scholar 

  313. Berchenko Y, Manor Y, Freedman LS, Kaliner E, Grotto I, Mendelson E, Huppert A (2017) Estimation of polio infection prevalence from environmental surveillance data. Sci Transl Med 9(383):eaaf6786

    Article  Google Scholar 

  314. Hovi T (2006) Surveillance for polioviruses. Biologicals 34(2):123–126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  315. Roivainen M, Blomqvist S, Al-Hello H, Paananen A, Delpeyreux F, Kuusi M, Hovi T (2010) Highly divergent neurovirulent vaccine-derived polioviruses of all three serotypes are recurrently detected in Finnish sewage. Euro Surveill 15(19):pii/19566

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  316. Wkly Epidemiol Record (2008) Conclusions and recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Poliomyelitis Eradication, Geneva, 27–28 November 2007. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 83(3):25–35

    Google Scholar 

  317. Kapp C (2003) Surge in polio spreads alarm in northern Nigeria. Rumours about vaccine safety in Muslim-run states threaten WHO’s eradication programme. Lancet 362(9396):1631–1632

    Article  Google Scholar 

  318. Samba E, Nkrumah F, Leke R (2004) Getting polio eradication back on track in Nigeria. N Engl J Med 350(7):645–646

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  319. McCarthy KA, Chabot-Couture G, Famulare M, Lyons HM, Mercer LD (2017) The risk of type 2 oral polio vaccine use in post-cessation outbreak response. BMC Med 15(1):175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  320. John TJ (1972) Problems with oral poliovaccine in India. Indian Pediatr 9(5):252–256

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  321. John TJ (1976) Antibody response of infants in tropics to five doses of oral polio vaccine. Br Med J 1(6013):812

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  322. Grassly NC, Fraser C, Wenger J, Deshpande JM, Sutter RW, Heymann DL, Aylward RB (2006) New strategies for the elimination of polio from India. Science 314(5802):1150–1153

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  323. Grassly NC, Jafari H, Bahl S, Durrani S, Wenger J, Sutter RW, Aylward RB (2009) Mucosal immunity after vaccination with monovalent and trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine in India. J Infect Dis 200(5):794–801

    Article  Google Scholar 

  324. Shulman LM, Mendelson E, Anis E, Bassal R, Gdalevich M, Hindiyeh M, Kaliner E, Kopel E, Manor Y, Moran-Gilad J, Ram D, Sofer D, Somekh E, Tasher D, Weil M, Gamzu R, Grotto I (2014) Laboratory challenges in response to silent introduction and sustained transmission of wild poliovirus type 1 in Israel during 2013. J Infect Dis 210(Suppl 1):S304–S314

    Article  Google Scholar 

  325. Gary HE Jr, Smith B, Jenks J, Ruiz J, Sessions W, Vinje J, Sobsey M (2008) Failure to detect infection by oral polio vaccine virus following natural exposure among inactivated polio vaccine recipients. Epidemiol Infect 136(2):180–183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  326. Wringe A, Fine PE, Sutter RW, Kew OM (2008) Estimating the extent of vaccine-derived poliovirus infection. PLoS One 3(10):e3433

    Article  Google Scholar 

  327. MMWR T (2007) Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses – worldwide, January 2006–August 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56(38):996–1001

    Google Scholar 

  328. MMWR (2009) Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses – worldwide, January 2008–June 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 58(36):1002–1006

    Google Scholar 

  329. Dowdle W, Kew O (2006) Vaccine-derived polioviruses: is it time to stop using the word “rare”? J Infect Dis 194(5):539–541

    Article  Google Scholar 

  330. Morales M, Nnadi CD, Tangermann RH, Wassilak SG (2016) Notes from the field: circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreaks – five countries, 2014–2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 65(5):128–129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  331. Macklin G, Liao Y, Takane M, Dooling K, Gilmour S, Mach O, Kew OM, Sutter RW, i V Working Group (2017) Prolonged excretion of poliovirus among individuals with primary immunodeficiency disorder: An analysis of the World Health Organization registry. Front Immunol 8:1103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  332. Guo J, Bolivar-Wagers S, Srinivas N, Holubar M, Maldonado Y (2015) Immunodeficiency-related vaccine-derived poliovirus (iVDPV) cases: a systematic review and implications for polio eradication – appendix A. Vaccine 33(10):1235–1242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  333. Halsey NA, Pinto J, Espinosa-Rosales F, Faure-Fontenla MA, da Silva E, Khan AJ, Webster AD, Minor P, Dunn G, Asturias E, Hussain H, Pallansch MA, Kew OM, Winkelstein J, Sutter R (2004) Search for poliovirus carriers among people with primary immune deficiency diseases in the United States, Mexico, Brazil, and the United Kingdom. Bull World Health Organ 82(1):3–8

    Google Scholar 

  334. Wkly Epidemiol Record (2010) Progress toward interrupting wild poliovirus transmission worldwide. 2009. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 85(18):178–184

    Google Scholar 

  335. Guo J, Bolivar-Wagers S, Srinivas N, Holubar M, Maldonado Y (2015) Immunodeficiency-related vaccine-derived poliovirus (iVDPV) cases: a systematic review and implications for polio eradication. Vaccine 33(10):1235–1242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  336. Aghamohammadi A, Abolhassani H, Kutukculer N, Wassilak SG, Pallansch MA, Kluglein S, Quinn J, Sutter RW, Wang X, Sanal O, Latysheva T, Ikinciogullari A, Bernatowska E, Tuzankina IA, Costa-Carvalho BT, Franco JL, Somech R, Karakoc-Aydiner E, Singh S, Bezrodnik L, Espinosa-Rosales FJ, Shcherbina A, Lau YL, Nonoyama S, Modell F, Modell V, Investigators JMFCN, Study C, Barbouche MR, McKinlay MA (2017) Patients with primary Immunodeficiencies are a reservoir of poliovirus and a risk to polio eradication. Front Immunol 8:685

    Article  Google Scholar 

  337. Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Thompson KM (2017) Comprehensive screening for immunodeficiency-associated vaccine-derived poliovirus: an essential oral poliovirus vaccine cessation risk management strategy. Epidemiol Infect 145(2):217–226

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  338. Hovi T, Lindholm N, Savolainen C, Stenvik M, Burns C (2004) Evolution of wild-type 1 poliovirus in two healthy siblings excreting the virus over a period of 6 months. J Gen Virol 85(Pt 2):369–377

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  339. Pelletier I, Duncan G, Pavio N, Colbere-Garapin F (1998) Molecular mechanisms of poliovirus persistence: key role of capsid determinants during the establishment phase. Cell Mol Life Sci 54(12):1385–1402

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  340. Zhao K, Jorba J, Shaw J, Iber J, Chen Q, Bullard K, Kew OM, Burns CC (2017) Are circulating type 2 vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs) genetically distinguishable from immunodeficiency-associated VDPVs? Comput Struct Biotechnol J 15:456–462

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  341. Pavlov DN (2006) Poliovirus vaccine strains in sewage and river water in South Africa. Can J Microbiol 52(8):717–723

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  342. Yoshida H, Horie H, Matsuura K, Miyamura T (2000) Characterisation of vaccine-derived polioviruses isolated from sewage and river water in Japan. Lancet 356(9240):1461–1463

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  343. Paximadi E, Karakasiliotis I, Papaventsis D, Papageorgiou G, Markoulatos P (2008) Recombinant Sabin environmental isolates in Greece and Cyprus. J Appl Microbiol 104(4):1153–1162

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  344. CDC (2009) Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses – worldwide, January 2008–June 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 58(36):1002–1006

    Google Scholar 

  345. Arya SC, Agarwal N (2007) Global polio laboratory network: future pursuit and commitments. J Clin Virol 38(4):362–363

    Article  Google Scholar 

  346. WHO (2015) Polio environmental surveillance expansion plan: global expansion plan under the endgame strategy 2013–2018. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

    Google Scholar 

  347. Snider CJ, Diop OM, Burns CC, Tangermann RH, Wassilak SG (2016) Surveillance systems to track progress toward polio eradication – worldwide, 2014–2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 65(13):346–351

    Article  Google Scholar 

  348. Previsani N, Tangermann RH, Tallis G, Jafari HS (2015) World Health Organization guidelines for containment of poliovirus following type-specific polio eradication – worldwide, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 64(33):913–917

    Article  Google Scholar 

  349. Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Pallansch MA, Wassilak SG, Cochi SL, Thompson KM (2016) Characterization of outbreak response strategies and potential vaccine stockpile needs for the polio endgame. BMC Infect Dis 16:137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  350. Etsano A, Damisa E, Shuaib F, Nganda GW, Enemaku O, Usman S, Adeniji A, Jorba J, Iber J, Ohuabunwo C, Nnadi C, Wiesen E (2016) Environmental isolation of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus after interruption of wild poliovirus transmission – Nigeria, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 65(30):770–773

    Article  Google Scholar 

  351. Pons-Salort M, Burns CC, Lyons H, Blake IM, Jafari H, Oberste MS, Kew OM, Grassly NC (2016) Preventing vaccine-derived poliovirus emergence during the polio endgame. PLoS Pathog 12(7):e1005728

    Article  Google Scholar 

  352. Maderova E, Slacikova M, Cernakova B, Sobotova Z, Nadova K (2005) First isolation of vaccine-derived poliovirus in Slovakia. Euro Surveill 10(8):E050818.3

    Google Scholar 

  353. Yang CF, Naguib T, Yang SJ, Nasr E, Jorba J, Ahmed N, Campagnoli R, van der Avoort H, Shimizu H, Yoneyama T, Miyamura T, Pallansch M, Kew O (2003) Circulation of endemic type 2 vaccine-derived poliovirus in Egypt from 1983 to 1993. J Virol 77(15):8366–8377

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  354. MMWR (1994) Certification of poliomyelitis eradication – the Americas, 1994. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 43(39):720–722

    Google Scholar 

  355. Strebel PM, Sutter RW, Cochi SL, Biellik RJ, Brink EW, Kew OM, Pallansch MA, Orenstein WA, Hinman AR (1992) Epidemiology of poliomyelitis in the United States one decade after the last reported case of indigenous wild virus-associated disease. Clin Infect Dis 14(2):568–579

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  356. MMWR (2001) Certification of poliomyelitis eradication – Western Pacific Region, October 2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 50(1):1–3

    Google Scholar 

  357. MMWR (2002) Certification of poliomyelitis eradication – European Region, June 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51(26):572–574

    Google Scholar 

  358. MMWR (2001) Erratum: apparent global interruption of wild poliovirus type 2 transmission. MMWR 50(12):249

    Google Scholar 

  359. Kew OM, Cochi SL, Jafari HS, Wassilak SGF, Mast EE, Diop OM, Tangermann RH, Armstrong GL (2014) Possible eradication of wild poliovirus type 3 – worldwide, 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 63(45):1031–1033

    Google Scholar 

  360. GPEI (2012) Economic case for Eradicating Polio. GPEI. http://polioeradication.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/EconomicCase.pdf. Last accessed June 2019

  361. GPEI (2018) Polio eradication, certification and integration: the endgame strategy. PPG meeting 3 Dec 2018. GPEI. http://polioeradication.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/20181203_PPG_PECI.pdf. Last accessed June 2019

  362. GPEI (2019) Financial resource requirements 2013–2019. GPEI. http://polioeradication.org/wp-content/uploads/.../FRR2013-2019_April2016_EN_A4.pdf. Last accessed June 2019

  363. Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Pallansch MA, Cochi SL, Wassilak SG, Linkins J, Sutter RW, Aylward RB, Thompson KM (2010) Economic analysis of the global polio eradication initiative. Vaccine 29(2):334–343

    Article  Google Scholar 

  364. Oliver Wyman Inc (2010) The supply landscape and economics of IPV-containing combination vaccines: key findings. May 2010. Commissioned by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Seattle, Washington, USA

    Google Scholar 

  365. Heymann DL, Sutter RW, Aylward RB (2006) A vision of a world without polio: the OPV cessation strategy. Biologicals 34(2):75–79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  366. Sutter RW, Caceres VM, Mas LP (2004) The role of routine polio immunization in the post-certification era. Bull World Health Organ 82(1):31–39

    Google Scholar 

  367. Grassly NC (2018) Eradicating polio with a vaccine we must stop using. Lancet Infect Dis 18(6):590–591

    Article  Google Scholar 

  368. Eichner M, Dietz K (1996) Eradication of poliomyelitis: when can one be sure that polio virus transmission has been terminated? Am J Epidemiol 143(8):816–822

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  369. Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Pallansch MA, Kew OM, Caceres VM, Jafari H, Cochi SL, Sutter RW, Aylward RB, Thompson KM (2006) Risks of paralytic disease due to wild or vaccine-derived poliovirus after eradication. Risk Anal 26(6):1471–1505

    Article  Google Scholar 

  370. Ehrenfeld E, Modlin J, Chumakov K (2009) Future of polio vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 8(7):899–905

    Article  Google Scholar 

  371. Michael CA, Waziri N, Gunnala R, Biya O, Kretsinger K, Wiesen E, Goodson JL, Esapa L, Gidado S, Uba B, Nguku P, Cochi S (2017) Polio legacy in action: using the polio eradication infrastructure for measles elimination in Nigeria-The National Stop Transmission of Polio Program. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S373–S379

    Article  Google Scholar 

  372. Jenkins PC, Modlin JF (2006) Decision analysis in planning for a polio outbreak in the United States. Pediatrics 118(2):611–618

    Article  Google Scholar 

  373. Wkly Epidemiol Record (2005) Conclusions and recommendations of the advisory committee on poliomyelitis eradication, Geneva, 11–12 October 2005. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 80(47):410–416

    Google Scholar 

  374. WHO (2005) WHO framework for national policy makers in OPV-using countries – cessation of routine oral polio vaccine (OPV) use after global polio eradication 05.02.: WHO/POLIO/05.02

    Google Scholar 

  375. Wagner BG, Earn DJ (2008) Circulating vaccine derived polio viruses and their impact on global polio eradication. Bull Math Biol 70(1):253–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  376. Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Pallansch MA, Alexander JP, Thompson KM (2010) Optimal vaccine stockpile design for an eradicated disease: application to polio. Vaccine 28(26):4312–4327

    Article  Google Scholar 

  377. Fine PE, Sutter RW, Orenstein WA (2001) Stopping a polio outbreak in the post-eradication era. Dev Biol (Basel) 105:129–147; discussion 149–150

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  378. Khan F, Datta SD, Quddus A, Vertefeuille JF, Burns CC, Jorba J, Wassilak SGF (2018) Progress toward polio eradication – worldwide, January 2016–March 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 67(18):524–528

    Article  Google Scholar 

  379. GPEI-EPI (2014) Background and technical rationale for introduction of one dose of inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) in routine immunization schedule. http://tinyurl.com/ipv-intro. Last accessed June 2019

  380. GPEI-EPI (2015) Update on the OPV switch and short term supply constraints for IPV. http://www.who.int/immunization/diseases/poliomyelitis/endgame_objective2/inactivated_polio_vaccine/Information_Note_on_short_term_supply_constraints_for_IPV-Nov_2015.pdf. Last accessed June 2019

  381. Bassey BE, Braka F, Vaz RG, Komakech W, Maleghemi ST, Koko R, Igbu T, Ireye F, Agwai S, Akpan GU, Tegegne SG, Mohammed A-AG, Okocha-Ejeko A (2018) The global switch from trivalent oral polio vaccine (tOPV) to bivalent oral polio vaccine (bOPV): facts, experiences and lessons learned from the south-south zone; Nigeria, April 2016. BMC Infect Dis 18(1):57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  382. Pedreira C, Thrush E, Jauregui B (2017) Systematization of the introduction of IPV and switch from tOPV to bOPV in the Americas. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S76–S85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  383. Dasgupta R, Sharma S, Sharma N, Banerjee K, Haran EGP, Muliyel JP, Salunke S, Masoodi MA, Haldar P, Bahl S, Bhatnagar P, Joshi S, Arora NK (2019) Successful switch (tOPV to bOPV) in India: tribute to a resilient health system. Vaccine 37(17):2394–2400

    Article  Google Scholar 

  384. Holmes M, Abimbola T, Lusiana M, Pallas S, Hampton LM, Widyastuti R, Muas I, Karlina K, Kosen S (2017) Resource needs for the trivalent oral polio to bivalent oral polio vaccine switch in Indonesia. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S209–S216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  385. Fahmy K, Hampton LM, Langar H, Patel M, Mir T, Soloman C, Hasman A, Yusuf N, Teleb N (2017) Introduction of inactivated polio vaccine, withdrawal of type 2 oral polio vaccine, and routine immunization strengthening in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S86–S93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  386. Thompson KM, Duintjer Tebbens RJ (2017) Lessons from globally coordinated cessation of serotype 2 oral poliovirus vaccine for the remaining serotypes. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S168–S175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  387. Hampton LM, du Chatellier GM, Fournier-Caruana J, Ottosen A, Rubin J, Menning L, Farrell M, Shendale S, Patel M (2017) Considerations for the full global withdrawal of oral polio vaccine after eradication of polio. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S217–S225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  388. Ramirez Gonzalez A, Farrell M, Menning L, Garon J, Everts H, Hampton LM, Dolan SB, Shendale S, Wanyoike S, Veira CL, Chatellier GMD, Kurji F, Rubin J, Boualam L, Chang Blanc D, Patel M (2017) Implementing the synchronized global switch from trivalent to bivalent oral polio vaccines-lessons learned from the global perspective. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S183–S192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  389. Bahl S, Hasman A, Eltayeb AO, James Noble D, Thapa A (2017) The switch from trivalent to bivalent oral poliovirus vaccine in the South-East Asia Region. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S94–S100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  390. Gurung S, Harris JB, Eltayeb AO, Hampton LM, Diorditsa S, Avagyan T, Schluter WW (2017) Experience with inactivated polio vaccine introduction and the “switch” from trivalent to bivalent oral polio vaccine in the World Health Organization’s Western Pacific Region. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S101–S108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  391. Wanyoike S, Ramirez Gonzalez A, Dolan SB, Garon J, Veira CL, Hampton LM, Chang Blanc D, Patel MM (2017) Disposing of excess vaccines after the withdrawal of oral polio vaccine. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S202–S208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  392. Rubin J, Ottosen A, Ghazieh A, Fournier-Caruana J, Ntow AK, Gonzalez AR (2017) Managing the planned cessation of a global supply market: lessons learned from the global cessation of the trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine market. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S40–S45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  393. Koopman JS, Henry CJ, Park JH, Eisenberg MC, Ionides EL, Eisenberg JN (2017) Dynamics affecting the risk of silent circulation when oral polio vaccination is stopped. Epidemics 20:21–36

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  394. WER (2016) Cessation of use of trivalent oral polio vaccine and introduction of inactivated poliovirus vaccine worldwide, 2016. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 91(36–37):421–427

    Google Scholar 

  395. Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Hampton LM, Thompson KM (2016) Implementation of coordinated global serotype 2 oral poliovirus vaccine cessation: risks of inadvertent trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine use. BMC Infect Dis 16:237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  396. Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Hampton LM, Thompson KM (2016) Implementation of coordinated global serotype 2 oral poliovirus vaccine cessation: risks of potential non-synchronous cessation. BMC Infect Dis 16:231

    Article  Google Scholar 

  397. Decina D, Fournier-Caruana J, Takane M, Ostad Ali Dehaghi R, Sutter R (2017) Regulatory aspects of Sabin type 2 withdrawal from trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine: process and lessons learned. J Infect Dis 216(Suppl 1):S46–S51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  398. Baca-Estrada M, Griffiths E (2006) Regulation and standardization of IPV and IPV combination vaccines. Biologicals 34(2):159–161

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  399. Duchene M (2006) Production, testing and perspectives of IPV and IPV combination vaccines: GSK biologicals’ view. Biologicals 34(2):163–166

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  400. Graf H (2006) Manufacturing and supply of monovalent oral polio vaccines. Biologicals 34(2):141–144

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  401. el-Sayed N, el-Gamal Y, Abbassy AA, Seoud I, Salama M, Kandeel A, Hossny E, Shawky A, Hussein HA, Pallansch MA, van der Avoort HG, Burton AH, Sreevatsava M, Malankar P, Wahdan MH, Sutter RW (2008) Monovalent type 1 oral poliovirus vaccine in newborns. N Engl J Med 359(16):1655–1665

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  402. Farag MM (2006) Licensing of monovalent OPV1 vaccine. Biologicals 34(2):145–149

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  403. Caceres VM, Sutter RW (2001) Sabin monovalent oral polio vaccines: review of past experiences and their potential use after polio eradication. Clin Infect Dis 33(4):531–541

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  404. Shulman LM, Manor J, Sofer D, Mendelsohn E (2009) Environmental surveillance for polioviruses in Israel: bio-error, bio-terror or just mother nature. In: Marks RS, Lobel L, Amadou SA (eds) Advanced detection of viral pathogens. Neobionics Ltd., Omer, pp 111–121

    Google Scholar 

  405. Vashishtha VM (2004) But do we have other options? Indian J Pediatr 71(2):183–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  406. Nathanson N (2008) The pathogenesis of poliomyelitis: what we don’t know. Adv Virus Res 71:1–50

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  407. Minor P (2006) Gaps in scientific knowledge for the post eradication world. Biologicals 34(2):167–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  408. Kitamura N, Semler BL, Rothberg PG, Larsen GR, Adler CJ, Dorner AJ, Emini EA, Hanecak R, Lee JJ, van der Werf S, Anderson CW, Wimmer E (1981) Primary structure, gene organization and polypeptide expression of poliovirus RNA. Nature 291(5816):547–553

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  409. Shulman LM, Manor Y, Sofer D, Mendelson E (2013) Environmental surveillance for polioviruses in Israel: bioerror, bioterror, or just mother nature. In: Marks RS, Lobel L, Sall A (eds) Viral diagnostics advances and applications. Jenny Stanford Publishing, New York, pp 17–34

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Lester M. Shulman

  2. Central Virology Laboratory, Laboratory of Environmental Virology at Sheba Medical Center; Retired, Public Health Services, Israel Ministry of Health, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Lester M. Shulman

Authors
  1. Lester M. Shulman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lester M. Shulman .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Lester M Shulman

Section Editor information

  1. Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Lester M. Shulman

  2. Central Virology Laboratory, Laboratory of Environmental Virology at Sheba Medical Center; Retired, Public Health Services, Israel Ministry of Health, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Lester M. Shulman

Additional information

Polio and measles are the second and third human pathogens for which there is an ongoing global program for eradication. Polio eradication has reached the endgame. Measles eradication is currently running into trouble from increasing numbers of individuals who refuse vaccination. Smallpox successfully completed the endgame and is now in the stage of post-eradication sustainability with bioterror as the main threat to sustainability of eradication. This chapter will describe some of the difficulties with completing the endgame of polio eradication and then in sustaining post-polio eradication. More than the usual number of items are included in the Glossary to make it easier for the reader to follow the progress of eradication as it unfolds in the large number of official documents that deal with a global eradication program and which contain copious numbers of professional acronyms.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Shulman, L.M. (2023). Polio and Its Epidemiology. In: Shulman, L.M. (eds) Infectious Diseases. Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology Series. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-2463-0_839

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation