Skip to main content

Gingival Pathology

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Contemporary Oral Medicine
  • 5824 Accesses

Abstract

The normal anatomy and physiology of the periodontium is well known to dentists and dental specialists, as are the effects on the periodontium of plaque-associated bacterial infections. However, the gingivae may be involved in many other local and systemic conditions. The purpose of this chapter is to describe some of the less common pathological conditions that may affect one or more of the components of the periodontium and to discuss how clinicians can ensure these lesions are diagnosed and managed in a timely manner.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 599.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 899.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Akrish S, Ben-Izhak OF, Sabo E, Rachmiel A. Oral squamous cell carcinoma associated with proliferative verrucous leukoplakia compared with conventional squamous cell carcinoma-a clinical, histologic and immunohistochemical study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2015;119:318–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Hashimi I, Schifter M, Lockhart PB, Wray D, Brennan M, Migliorati CA, et al. Oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions: diagnostic and therapeutic considerations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103:e1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allon I, Pessing A, Kaplan I, Allon DM, Hirshberg A. Metastatic tumors to the gingiva and the presence of teeth as a contributing factor: a literature analysis. J Periodontol. 2014;85:132–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allon I, Lammert KM, Iwase R, Spears R, Wright JM, Naidu A. Localised juvenile spongiotic gingival hyperplasia possibly originates from the junctional epithelium-an immunohistochemcial study. Histopathology. 2016;68:549–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Almouhawis HA, Leao JC, Fedele S, Porter SR. Wegener’s granulomatosis: a review of clinical features and an update in diagnosis and treatment. J Oral Pathol Med. 2013;42:507–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Argyris PP, Nelson AC, Papanakou S, Merkourea S, Tosios KI, Koutlas IG. Localised juvenile spongiotic gingival hyperplasia featuring unusual p16INK4A labelling and negative human papillomavirus status by polymerase chain reaction. J Oral Pathol Med. 2015;44:37–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armitage G. Development of a classification system for periodontal diseases and conditions. Ann Periodontol. 1999;4:1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bagan JV, Jimenez Y, Sanchis JM, Poveda R, Milian MA, Murillo J, et al. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia: high incidence of gingival squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Pathol Med. 2003;32:379–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bagan J, Lo Muzio L, Scully C. Mucosal disease series. Number III. Mucous membrane pemphigoid. Oral Dis. 2005;11:197–218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bagan JV, Carbonell F, Gómez MJ, Sánchez NA, Leopoldo M, et al. Extra-nodal B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas of the head and neck: a study of 68 cases. Am J Otolaryngol. 2015;36:57–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bansal M, Singh N, Patne S, Singh SK. Orofacial granulomatosis affecting lip and gingiva in a 15-year-old patient: a rare case report. Contemp Clin Dent. 2015;6(Suppl 1):S94–6. https://doi.org/10.4103/0976-237X.152958.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Black M, Mignogna MD, Scully C. Number II. Pemphigus vulgaris. Oral Dis. 2005;11:119–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown RS, Arany PR. Mechanism of drug-induced gingival overgrowth revisited: a unifying hypothesis. Oral Dis. 2014;21:e51–61.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brown RS, Beaver WT, Bottomley WK. On the mechanism of drug-induced gingival hyperplasia. J Oral Pathol Med. 1991;20:201–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown AL, Camargo de Moraes P, Sperandio M, Borges Soares A, Cavalcanti Araújo V, Passador-Santos F. Peripheral giant cell granuloma associated with a dental implant: a case report and review of the literature. Case Rep Dent. 2015;2015:697673. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/697673.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell H, Escudier M, Patel P, Nunes C, Elliott TR, Barnard K, et al. Distinguishing orofacial granulomatosis from Crohn’s disease: two separate disease entities? Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2011;17:2109–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caton JG, Armitage G, Berglundh T, Chapple ILC, Jepsen S, Kornman KS, et al. A new classification scheme for periodontal and peri-implant diseases and conditions - Introduction and key changes from the 1999 classification. J Periodontol. 2018;89 (1 Suppl):S1–S8. https://doi.org/10.1002/JPER.18-0157.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chan ES, Thornhill M, Zakrzewska J. Interventions for treating oral lichen planus. J Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;2:CD001168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan LS, Ahmed AR, Anhalt GJ, Bernauer W, Cooper KD, Elder MJ, et al. The first international consensus on mucous membrane pemphigoid. Definition, diagnostic criteria, pathogenic factors, medical treatment, and prognostic indicators. Arch Dermatol. 2002;138:370–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang Y, Cesarman E, Pessin MS, Lee F, Culpepper J, Knowles DM, et al. Identification of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi’s sarcoma. Science. 1994;266:1865–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang JY, Kessler HP, Wright JM. Localised juvenile spongiotic gingival hyperplasia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2008;106:411–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cholera M, Chainani-Wu N. Management of pemphigus vulgaris. Adv Ther. 2016;33:910–58.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Clark LG, Tolkachjov SN, Bridges AG, Camilleri MJ. Pyostomatitis vegetans (PSV)-pyodermatitis vegetans (PDV): a clinicopathologic study of 7 cases at a tertiary referral center. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2016;75:578–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen PS, Meltzer JA. Strawberry gums. A sign of Wegener’s granulomatosis. JAMA. 1981;246:2610–1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dahlstrom KR, Little JA, Zafereo ME, Lung M, Wei Q, Sturgis EM. Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck in never smoker-never drinkers: a descriptive epidemiologic study. Head Neck. 2008;30:75–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Darling MR, Daley TD, Wilson A, Wysocki GP. Juvenile spongiotic gingivitis. J Periodontol. 2007;78:1235–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Di Zenzo G, Carrozzo M, Chan LS. Urban legend series: mucous membrane pemphigoid. Oral Dis. 2014;20:35–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dittmer DP, Damania B. Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus: immunobiology, oncogenesis, and therapy. J Clin Invest. 2016;126:3165–75.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Elad S, Epstein JB, Yarom N, Drucker S, Tzach R, von Bültzingslöwen I. Topical immunomodulators for management of oral mucosal conditions, a systematic review; part 2: calcineurin inhibitors. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2010;15:713–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Endo H, Rees TD, Hallmon WW, Kuyama K, Nakadai M, Kato T, et al. Disease progression from mucosal to mucocutaneous involvement in a patient with desquamative gingivitis associated with pemphigus vulgaris. J Periodontol. 2008;79:369–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein JB, Epstein JD, Le ND, Gorsky M. Characteristics of oral and paraoral malignant lymphoma: a population-based review of 361 cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2001;92:519–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falk RJ, Gross WL, Guillevin L, Hoffman G, Jayne DR, Jennette JC, et al. Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener’s): an alternative name for Wegener’s granulomatosis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2011;70:704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Femiano F, Lanza A, Buonaiuto C, Perillo L, Dell’Ermo A, Cirillo N. Pyostomatits vegetans: a review of the literature. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2009;14:E114–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Firth FA, Friedlander LT, Parachuru VPB, Kardos TB, Seymour GJ, Rich AM. Regulation of immune cells in oral lichen planus. Arch Dermatol Res. 2015;307:333–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goncalves PH, Ziegelbauer J, Uldrick TS, Yarchoan R. Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus-associated cancers and related diseases. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2017;12:47–56.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gondalfo S, Castellani R, Pentenero M. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia: a potentially malignant disorder involving periodontal sites. J Periodontol. 2009;80:274–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hart TC, Zhang Y, Gorry MC, Hart PS, Cooper M, Marazita ML, Marks JM, et al. A mutation in the SOS1 gene causes hereditary gingival fibromatosis type 1. Am J Hum Genet. 2002;70:943–95.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hartsfield JK Jr, Bixler D, Hazen RH. Gingival fibromatosis with sensorineural hearing loss: an autosomal dominant trait. Am J Med Genet. 1985;22:623–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hegarty AM. Oral lichen planus: aetiology, diagnosis and treatment. Dent Nurs. 2012;8:14–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hegarty A, Hodgson T, Porter S. Thalidomide for the treatment of recalcitrant oral Crohn’s disease and orofacial granulomatosis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2003;95:576–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hegarty AM, Barrett AW, Scully C. Pyostomatitis vegetans. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2004;29:1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirshberg A, Kozlovsky A, Schwartz-Arad D, Mardinger O, Kaplan I. Peripheral giant cell granuloma associated with dental implants. J Periodontol. 2003;74:1381–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirshberg A, Berger R, Allon I, Kaplan I. Metastatic tumors to the jaws and mouth. Head Neck Pathol. 2014;8:463–74.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Housley Smith M, Bhattacharyya I, Cohen DM, Islam NM, Fitzpatrick SG, Montague LJ. Melanoma of the oral cavity: an analysis of 46 new cases with emphasis on clinical and histopathologic characteristics. Head Neck Pathol. 2016;10:298–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iguchi H, Wada T, Matsushita N, Oishi M, Yamane H. Anatomic distribution of hematolymphoid malignancies in the head and neck: 7 years experience in a single institution. Acta Otolaryngol. 2012;132:1224–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jain MK, Manjunath KS, Jagadish SN. Unusual oral complications of herpes zoster infection: report of a case and review of literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;110:e37–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jessri M, AbdulMajeed AA, Matias MA, Farah CS. A case of primary diffuse large B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma misdiagnosed as chronic periapical periodontitis. Aust Dent J. 2013;58:250–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joshi C, Shukla P. Plasma cell gingivitis. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2015;19:221–3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kitano M, Landini G, Urago A, Okubo A, Mukai H, Yamashita S. Odontogenic epithelial hamartoma of the gingiva: a case report. J Periodontol. 1991;62:452–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kolho KL, Heiskanen K, Verkasalo M, Pitkäranta A. Orofacial granulomatosis in children-a challenge for diagnosis and treatment. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2011;75:864–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kujan O, Al-Shawaf AZ, Azzeghaiby S, AlManadille A, Aziz K, Raheel SA. Immunohistochemical comparison of p53, Ki-67, CD68, vimentin, α-smooth muscle actin and alpha-1-antichymotrypsin in oral peripheral and central giant cell granuloma. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2015;16:20–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kurtulus I, Gokbuget A, Efeoglu A, Cintan S, Tefs K, Schuster V, et al. Hypoplasminogenemia with ligneous periodontitis: a failed local therapeutic approach. J Periodontol. 2007;78:1164–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lam A, Kiyak A, Gossett AM, McCormick L. Assessment of the use of xerogenic medications for chronic medical and dental conditions among adult day health participants. Consult Pharm. 2009;24:755–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lankarani KB, Sivandzadeh GR, Hassanpour S. Oral manifestation in inflammatory bowel disease: a review. World J Gastroenterol. 2013;19:8571–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lester SR, Cordell KG, Rosebush MS, Palaiologou AA, Maney P. Peripheral giant cell granulomas: a series of 279 cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2014;118:475–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Limeres Posse J, Scully C. Oral HPV-associated papillomatosis in AIDS. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:2585.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutalo PMK, D’Cruz DP. Diagnosis and classification of granulomatosis with polyangiitis (aka Wegener’s granulomatosis). J Autoimmun. 2014;48–49:94–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Madhavarajan S, Tighe J. Orofacial plasmacytosis: a management conundrum. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;53:399–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martins AF, Souza PO, Rege IC, Morais MO, Mendonça EF. Glucocorticoids, calcitonin, and osteocalcin cannot differentiate between aggressive and nonaggressive central giant cell lesions of the jaws. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2015;120:386–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mattsson U, Jontell M, Holmstrup P. Oral lichen planus and malignant transformation: is a recall of patients justified? Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 2002;13:390–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McMillan R, Taylor J, Shephard M, Ahmed R, Carrozzo M, Setterfield J, et al. World workshop on oral medicine VI: a systematic review of the treatment of mucocutaneous pemphigus vulgaris. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2015;120:132–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendieta C, Miranda J, Brunet LI, Gargallo J, Berini L. Alveolar bone necrosis and tooth exfoliation following herpes zoster infection: a review of the literature and case report. J Periodontol. 2005;76:148–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neill ID, Scully C. Biologics in oral medicine: oral Crohn’s disease and orofacial granulomatosis. Oral Dis. 2012;18:633–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okura M, Yanamoto S, Umeda M, Otsuru M, Ota Y, Kurita H. Prognostic and staging implications of mandibular canal invasion in lower gingival squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Med. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1002/cam4.899.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Palefsky JM. Human papillomavirus-associated anal and cervical cancers in HIV-infected individuals: incidence and prevention in the antiretroviral therapy era. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2017;12(1):26–30.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Philipsen HP, Reichart PA, Nikai H, Takata T, Kudo Y. Peripheral ameloblastoma: biological profile based on 160 cases from the literature. Oral Oncol. 2001;37:17–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poulopoulos A, Kittas D, Sarigelou A. Current concepts on gingival fibromatosis-related syndromes. J Investig Clin Dent. 2011;2:156–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rashid KA, Stern JNH, Ahmed AR. Identification of an epitope within human integrin α6 subunit for the binding of autoantibody and its role in basement membrane separation in oral pemphigoid. J Immunol. 2006;176:1968–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Relle M, Föhr B, Fasola F, Schwarting A. Genetics and pathophysiology of granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) and its main autoantigen proteinase 3. Mol Cell Probes. 2016;30:366–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan K, Hegarty AM, Hodgson T. Aetiology, diagnosis and treatment of oral lichen planus. Br J Hosp Med. 2014;75:492–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scattarella A, Petruzzi M, Ballini A, Grassi F, Nardi G. Oral lichen planus and dental hygiene: a case report. Int J Dent Hyg. 2011;9:163–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuster V, Mingers AM, Seidenspinner S, Nüssgens Z, Pukrop T, Kreth HW. Homozygous mutations in the plasminogen gene of two unrelated girls with ligneous conjunctivitis. Blood. 1997;90:958–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scully C, Bagan JV. Adverse drug reactions in the orofacial region. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 2004;15:221–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scully C, Gokbuget A, Kurtulus I. Hypoplasminogenaemia, gingival swelling and ulceration. Oral Dis. 2007;13:515–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shipman AR, Reddy H, Wojnarowska F. Association between the subepidermal autoimmune blistering diseases linear IgA disease and the pemphigoid group and inflammatory bowel disease: two case reports and literature review. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2012;37:461–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silva TDB, Ferreira CBT, Leite GB, Pontes JRdM, Antunes HS. Oral manifestations of lymphoma: a systemic review. Ecancermedicalscience. 2016;10. https://doi.org/10.3332/ecancer.2016.665.

  • Sinon S, Rich AM, Parachuru VPB, Firth FA, Milne T, Seymour GJ. Downregulation of toll-like receptor-mediated signalling pathways in oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med. 2016;45:28–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sivolella S, De Biagi M, Sartori MT, Berengo M, Bressan E. Destructive membranous periodontal disease (ligneous gingivitis): a literature review. J Periodontol. 2012;83:465–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spatafore CM, Keyes G, Skidmore AE. Lymphoma: an unusual oral presentation. J Endod. 1989;15:438–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor J, McMillan R, Shephard M, Setterfield J, Ahmed R, Carrozzo M, et al. World workshop on oral medicine VI: a systematic review of the treatment of mucous membrane pemphigoid. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2015;120:161–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thongprasom K, Carrozzo M, Furness S, Lodi G. Interventions for treating oral lichen planus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001168.pub2.

  • Thongprasom K, Prapinjumrune C, Carrozzo M. Novel therapies for oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med. 2013;42:721–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tobón-Arroyave SI, Franco-González LM, Isaza-Guzmán DM, Floréz-Moreno GA, Bravo-Vásquez T, Castañeda-Peláez DA, et al. Immunohistochemical expression of RANK, GRalpha and CTR in central giant cell granuloma of the jaws. Oral Oncol. 2005;41:480–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tong DC, Leaper MR, Colquhoun AN, Rich AM. An unusual presentation of oropharyngeal mucosal plasmacytosis related to toothpaste. J Laryngol Otol. 2008;122:1112–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vered M, Muller S, Heikinheimo K. Ameloblastoma, extraosseous/peripheral type. In: El-Nagger AK, Chan JKC, Grandid JR, Takata T, Slootweg PJ, editors. WHO classification of head and neck tumours. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC); 2017. p. 218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagaiyu EG, Ashley FP. Mouthbreathing, lip seal and upper lip coverage and their relationship with gingival inflammation in 11–14 year-old schoolchildren. J Clin Periodontol. 1991;18:698–702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warnakulasuriya S, Kovacevic T, Madden P, Coupland Sperandio M, Odell E, et al. Factors predicting malignant transformation in oral potentially malignant disorders among patients accrued over a 10-year period in South East England. J Oral Pathol Med. 2011;40:677–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wen KW, Damania B. Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV): molecular biology and oncogenesis. Cancer Lett. 2010;289:140–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Witkop CJ Jr. Heterogeneity in gingival fibromatosis. Birth Defects Orig Artic Ser. 1971;7:210–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wojciechowska J, Krajewski W, Krajewski P, KrÄ™cicki T. Granulomatosis with polyangiitis in otolaryngologist practice: a review of current knowledge. Clin Exp Otorhinolaryngol. 2016;9:8–13.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wu YH, Chang JY, Chen HM, Wang YP. Pyostomatitis vegetans: an oral manifestation of inflammatory bowel disease. J Formos Med Assoc. 2015;114:672–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamamoto K, Matsusue Y, Horita S, Minamiguchi M, Komatsu Y, Kirita T. Nicorandil-induced oral ulceration: report of 3 cases and review of the Japanese literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2011;112:754–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zakrzewska JM, Chan ES, Thornhill MH. A systematic review of placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials of treatments used in oral lichen planus. Br J Dermatol. 2005;153:336–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zbar AP, Ben-Horin S, Beer-Gabel M, Eliakim R. Oral Crohn’s disease: is it a separable disease from orofacial granulomatosis? A review. J Crohns Colitis. 2012;2:135–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou XJ, Sugerman PB, Savage NW, Walsh LJ, Seymour GJ. Intra-epithelial CD8+ T cell and basement membrane disruption in oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med. 2002;31:23–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alison Rich .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Hegarty, A., Rich, A. (2019). Gingival Pathology. In: Farah, C., Balasubramaniam, R., McCullough, M. (eds) Contemporary Oral Medicine. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72303-7_15

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72303-7_15

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-72301-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-72303-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics