Abstract
Efforts to control the global pandemic of human hepatitis B virus (hHBV) infection have been hampered by incomplete understanding of viral-host interactions in this disease. This situation has been confounded by the fact that hHBV has a limited host range and cannot be propagated in simple cell culture (1). Reproducible experimental infection with determination of infectivity was demonstrated in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), but not other primates (2–4), long before other animal models such as the woodchuck were identified. After successful inoculation of chimpanzees was reported in 1972, multiple institutions, including a multigroup collaboration between the FDA, CDC, and NIH, initiated studies to evaluate them as a model for the study of HBV. For the majority of studies only chimpanzees “with no prior exposure” to virus were used because those with positive serology [either from exposure to hHBV or chimpanzee HBV (chHBV)], with an estimated prevalence of 3–6% in Africa (5), were not reproducibly susceptible to infection (3). It has been widely reported that the effects of HBV infection in chimpanzees are milder than in humans, that is, few have developed fulminant hepatitis, and inoculated chimpanzees exhibit few symptoms or signs of infection. Furthermore, the incidence of chronic infection with HBV (see Table 2) and horizontal and vertical transmission (from mother to offspring) in chimpanzees is lower than in humans (6,7). Chimpanzees have been the cornerstone of all research on infectivity of HBV and safety and efficacy of vaccines.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Deinhardt, F. (1976) Hepatitis in primates. Adv. Virus Res. 20, 113–57.
Prince, A.M. (1972) Infection of chimpanzees with hepatitis B virus, in Hepatitis and Blood Transfusion (Vyas, G. N., Perkins, H. A., and Schmid, R. S., eds.) Grune and Stratton, New York.
Maynard, J.E., Berquist, K.R., and Krushak, D.H. (1972) Experimental infection of chimpanzees with the virus of hepatitis B. Nature 237, 514–515.
Barker, L.F., Chisari, F. V., McGrath, P. P., et al. (1973) Transmission of type B viral hepatitis to chimpanzees. J. Infect. Dis. 127, 648–662.
Desmyter, J., Liu, W. T., de Somer, P., and Mortelmans, J. (1973) Primates as model for human viral hepatitis: transmission of infection by human hepatitis B virus. Vox Sang. 24, 17–26.
Prince, A. M., Goodall, J., Brotman, B., Dienske, H., and Schellekens, H., and Eichberg, J. W. (1989) Appropriate conditions for maintenance of chimpanzees in studies with blood-borne viruses: an epidemiologic and psychosocial perspective. J. Med. Primatol. 18, 27–42.
Pancholi, P., Lee, D. H., Liu, Q., et al. (2001) DNA prime/canarypox boost-based immunotherapy of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in a chimpanzee. Hepatology 33, 448–454.
Tabor, E. (1985) Chimpanzee model for the study of hepatitis B, in Hepatitis B (Gerety, R. J., ed.), Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Karasawa, T., Shikata, T., Abe, K., Kondo, R., Noro, M., and Oda, T. (1985) Ultrastructural studies on liver cell necrosis and lymphocytes in experimental hepatitis B. Acta Pathol. Jpn. 35, 1359–1374.
Karasawa, T., Shikata, T., Abe, K., Kanayama, S., Kondo, R., and Oda, T. (1985) Ultrastructural changes of the bile secretory apparatus and bile ductule in experimental hepatitis B with neither apparent biochemical nor light-microscopic cholestasis. Acta Pathol. Jpn. 35, 1343–1358.
Karasawa, T., Shikata, T., Abe, K., Kanayama, S., Noro, M., and Oda, T. (1985) HBV-associated ultrastructures in the chimpanzees’ livers with experimental hepatitis B. Acta Pathol. Jpn. 35, 1333–1342.
Krawczynski, K., Prince, A.M., and Nowoslawski, A. (1979) Immunopathologic aspects of the HBsAg carrier state in chimpanzees. J. Med. Primatol. 8, 222–232.
Shouval, D., Chakraborty, P. R., Ruiz-Opazo, N., et al. (1980) Chronic hepatitis in chimpanzee carriers of hepatitis B virus: morphologic, immunologic, and viral DNA studies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77, 6147–6151.
Dienes, H. P., Purcell, R.H., Popper, H., and Ponzetto, A. (1990) The significance of infections with two types of viral hepatitis demonstrated by histologic features in chimpanzees. J. Hepatol. 10, 77–84.
Omata, M. (1990) Significance of extrahepatic replication of hepatitis B virus. Hepatology 12, 364–366.
Lieberman, H. M., Tung, W. W., and Shafritz, D. A. (1987) Splenic replication of hepatitis B virus in the chimpanzee chronic carrier. J. Med. Virol. 21, 347–359.
Penna, A., Artini, M., Cavalli, A., et al. (1996) Long-lasting memory T cell responses following self-limited acute hepatitis B. J. Clin. Invest. 98, 1185–1194.
Tabor, E., Hsia, C.C., and Muchmore, E. (1996) Histochemical and immunohistochemical similarities between hepatic tumors in two chimpanzees and man. J. Med. Primatol. 23, 271–279.
Millman, I., Loeb, L.A., Bayer, M.E., and Blumberg, B. S. (1970) Australia antigen (a hepatitis-associated antigen): purification and physical properties. J. Exp. Med. 131, 1190–1199.
Smetana, H. F. and Felsenfeld, A. D. (1969) Viral hepatitis in subhuman primates and its relationship to human viral hepatitis. Virchows Arch. A Pathol. Pathol. Anat. 348, 309–327.
Hillis, W.D. (1971) An outbreak of infectious hepatitis among chimpanzee handlers at a United States Air Force base. Am. J. Hyg. 73, 316–328.
Deinhardt, F. (1976) Hepatitis in primates. Adv. Virus Res. 20, 113–157.
Rivers, S.L. and Keeling, M. (1970) A study of the incidence of Australia antigen and antibody in nonhuman primates. Vox Sang. 19, 270–272.
Morin, P. A., Moore, J.J., Chakraborty, R., Jin, L., Goodall, J., and Woodruff, D.S. (1994) Kin selection, social structure, gene flow, and the evolution of chimpanzees. Science 265, 1193–1201.
Hu, X., Javadian, A, Gagneux, P., and Robertson, B.H. (2001) Paired chimpanzee hepatitis B virus (ChHBV) and mtDNA sequences suggest different ChHBV genetic variants are found in geographically distinct chimpanzee subspecies. Virus Res. 79, 103–108.
Gagneux, P., Gonder, M.K., Goldberg TL, Morin PA. (2001) Gene flow in wild chimpanzee populations: what genetic data tell us about chimpanzee movement over space and time. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 356, 889–897.
Rahm, U. (1967) Observations during chimpanzee captures in the Congo. In Neue Ergebnisse der Primatologie-Progress in Primatology. (Starck, D., Schneider, R., and Kuhn, H. J., eds.), Fischer, Stuttgart, pp. 195–207.
Krugman, S. (1971) Experiments at the Willowbrook State School. Lancet 1, 966–967.
Barker, L. F., Maynard, J.E., Purcell, R. H., Hoofnagle, J.H., Berquist, K. R., and London, W. T. (1975) Viral hepatitis, type B, in experimental animals. Am. J. Med. Sci. 270, 189–195.
Liang, T. J., Blum, H. E., and Wands, J. R. (1990) Characterization and biological properties of a hepatitis B virus isolated from a patient without hepatitis B virus serologic markers. Hepatology 2, 204–212.
Chen, P.J., Chen, M.L., and Chen, D.S. (1994) A viral mechanism in acute exacerbations of chronic type B hepatitis: hepatitis B virus reinfection and subsequent reactivation of two viral strains. J. Biomed. Sci. 1, 7–12.
Deinhardt, F., Courtois, G., Oberle, P., et al. (1962) Studies on liver function tests in chimpanzees after inoculation with infectious hepatitis virus. Am. J. Hyg. 75, 311–321.
Ogata, N., Miller, R. H., Ishak, K.G., and Purcell, R. H. (1993) The complete nucleotide sequence of a pre-core mutant of hepatitis B virus implicated in fulminant hepatitis and its biological characterization in chimpanzees. Virology 194, 263–276.
Lanford, R. E., Bigger, C., Bassett, S., and Klimpel, G. (2001) The chimpanzee model of hepatitis C virus infections. ILAR J. 42, 117–126.
Tabor, E., Aronson, D. L., and Gerety, R. J. (1980) Removal of hepatitis-B-virus infectivity from factor-IX complex by hepatitis-B immune-globulin. Experiments in chimpanzees. Lancet 2, 68–70.
Brummelhuis, H. G., Over, J., Duivis-Vorst, C. C., et al. (1983) Contributions to the optimal use of human blood. IX. Elimination of hepatitis B transmission by (potentially) infectious plasma derivatives. Vox Sang. 45, 205–216.
Stephan, W., Berthold, H., and Prince, A.M. (1981) Effect of combined treatment of serum containing hepatitis B virus with beta-propiolactone and ultraviolet irradiation. Vox Sang. 41, 134–138.
Tabor, E., Buynak, E., Smallwood, L. A., Snoy, P., Hilleman, M., and Gerety, R.J. (1983) Inactivation of hepatitis B virus by three methods: treatment with pepsin, urea, or formalin. J. Med. Virol. 11, 1–9.
Vnek, J., Prince, A.M., Hashimoto, N., and Ikram, H. (1978) Association of normal serum protein antigens with chimpanzee hepatitis B surface antigen particles. J. Med. Virol. 2, 319–333.
Prince, A. M., Stephan, W., Kotitschke, R., and Brotman, B. (1983) Inactivation of hepatitis B and non-A, non-B viruses by combined use of Tween 80, beta-propiolactone, and ultraviolet irradiation. Thromb. Haemost. 50, 534–536.
Prince, A. M., Stephan, W., and Brotman, B. (1983) Beta-propiolactone/ultraviolet irradiation: a review of its effectiveness for inactivation of viruses in blood derivatives. Rev. Infect. Dis. 5, 92–107.
Feinstone, S. M., Mihalik, K. B., Kamimura, T., Alter, H. J., London, W. T., and Purcell, R. H. (1983) Inactivation of hepatitis B virus and non-A, non-B hepatitis by chloroform. Infect. Immun. 41, 816–821.
Prince, A.M., Horowitz, B., Brotman, B., Huima, T., Richardson, L., and van den Ende, M. C. (1984) Inactivation of hepatitis B and Hutchinson strain non-A, non-B hepatitis viruses by exposure to Tween 80 and ether. Vox Sang. 46, 36–43.
Kobayashi, H., Tsuzuki, M., Koshimizu, K., et al. (1984) Susceptibility of hepatitis B virus to disinfectants or heat. J. Clin. Microbiol. 20, 214–216.
Hollinger, F. B., Dolana, G., Thomas, W., and Gyorkey, F. (1984) Reduction in risk of hepatitis transmission by heat-treatment of a human factor VIII concentrate. J. Infect. Dis. 150, 250–262.
Purcell, R.H., Gerin, J. L., Popper, H., et al. (1985) Hepatitis B virus, hepatitis non-A, non-B virus and hepatitis delta virus in lyophilized antihemophilic factor: relative sensitivity to heat. Hepatology 5, 1091–1099.
Lelie, P.N., Reesink, H. W., Niessen, J., Brotman, B., and Prince, A. M. (1987) Inactivation of 10(15) chimpanzee-infectious doses of hepatitis B virus during preparation of a heatinactivated hepatitis B vaccine. J. Med. Virol. 23, 289–295.
Zolton, R. P., Padvelskis, J. V., and Kaplan, P.M. (1985) Removal of hepatitis B virus infectivity from human gamma-globulin prepared by ion-exchange chromatography. Vox Sang. 49, 381–389.
Alter, H.J., Creagan, R. P., Morel, P. A., et al. (1988) Photochemical decontamination of blood components containing hepatitis B and non-A, non-B virus. Lancet 2, 1446–1450.
Prince, D.L., Prince, H. N., Thraenhart, O., Muchmore, E., Bonder, E., and Pugh, J. (1993) Methodological approaches to disinfection of human hepatitis B virus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31, 3296–3304.
Maynard, J.E., Krushak, D. H., Bradley, D. W., and Berquist, K.R. (1975) Infectivity studies of hepatitis A and B in non-human primates. Dev. Biol. Stand. 30, 229–235.
Krugman, S. (1975) Viral hepatitis type B: prospects for active immunization. Am. J. Med. Sci. 270, 391–393.
Drucker, J., Tabor, E., Gerety, R. J., Jackson, D., and Barker L. F. (1979) Simultaneous acute infections with hepatitis A and hepatitis B virus viruses in a chimpanzee. J. Infect. Dis. 139, 338–342.
Bradley, D.W., Maynard, J.E., McCaustland, K.A., Murphy, B.L., Cook, E.H., and Ebert, J. W. (1983) Non-A, non-B hepatitis in chimpanzees: interference with acute hepatitis A virus and chronic hepatitis B virus infections. J. Med. Virol. 11, 207–213.
Brotman, B., Prince, A.M., Huima, T., Richardson, L., van den Ende, M. C., and Pfeifer, U. (1983) Interference between non-A, non-B and hepatitis B virus infection in chimpanzees. J. Med. Virol. 11, 191–205.
Kos, T., Molijn, A., van Doorn, L.J., van Belkum, A., Dubbeld, M., and Schellekens, H. (1991) Hepatitis delta virus cDNA sequence from an acutely HBV-infected chimpanzee: sequence conservation in experimental animals. J. Med. Virol. 34, 268–279.
Wilson, S. and Logan, L.M. (1975) Hepatitis B core antigen in the immunosuppressed chimpanzee. Dev. Biol. Stand. 30, 240–243.
Trepo, C., Vnek, J., and Prince, A. M. (1975) Delayed hypersensitivity and Arthus reaction to purified hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in immunized chimpanzees. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 4, 528–537.
Negro, F., Shapiro, M., Satterfield, W. C., Gerin, J.L., and Purcell, R. H. (1989) Reappearance of hepatitis D virus (HDV) replication in chronic hepatitis B virus carrier chimpanzees rechallenged with HDV. J. Infect. Dis. 160, 567–571.
Ruiz-Opazo, N., Chakraborty, P. R., and Shafritz, D. A. (1982) Characterization of viral genomes in the liver and serum of chimpanzee long-term hepatitis B virus carriers: a possible role for supercoiled HBV-DNA in persistent HBV infection. J. Cell. Biochem. 19, 281–292.
Abe, K., Kagei, N., Teramura, Y., and Ejima, H. (1993) Hepatocellular carcinoma associated with chronic Schistosoma mansoni infection in a chimpanzee. J. Med. Primatol. 22, 237–239.
Lubeck, M.D., Davis, A.R., Chengalvala, M., et al. (1989) Immunogenicity and efficacy testing in chimpanzees of an oral hepatitis B vaccine based on live recombinant adenovirus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86, 6763–6767.
Fujisawa, Y., Kuroda, S., Van Eerd, P.A.C.M., Schellekens, H., and Kakinuma, A. (1990) Protective efficacy of a novel hepatitis B vaccine consisting of M (pre S2+S) protein particles (a third generation vaccine). Vaccine 8, 192–198.
Purcell, R. H., Gerin, J.L. (1975) Hepatitis B subunit vaccine: a preliminary report of safety and efficacy tests in chimpanzees. Am. J. Med. Sci. 270, 395–399.
Purcell, R. H., London, W. T., McAuliffe, V.J., et al. (1976) Modification of chronic hepatitis-B virus infection in chimpanzees by administration of an interferon inducer. Lancet 2, 757–761.
Hilleman, M.R., Buynak, E.B., Roehm, R.R., et al. (1975) Purified and inactivated human hepatitis B vaccine: progress report. Am. J. Med. Sci. 270, 401–404.
Gerety, R. J., Tabor, E., Purcell R. H., and Tyeryar, F.J. (1979) Summary of an international workshop on hepatitis B vaccines. J. Infect. Dis. 140, 642–648.
Iwarson, S., Tabor, E., Thomas, H. C., et al. (1985) Neutralization of hepatitis B virus infectivity by a murine monoclonal antibody: an experimental study in the chimpanzee. J. Med. Virol. 16, 89–96.
Davis, H.L., McCluskie, M.J., Gerin, J. L., and Purcell, R.H. (1996) DNA vaccine for hepatitis B: evidence for immunogenicity in chimpanzees and comparison with other vaccines. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 7213–7218.
Pancholi, P., Lee, D. H., Liu, Q., et al. (2001) DNA prime/canarypox boost-based immunotherapy of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in a chimpanzee. Hepatology 33, 448–454.
Sällberg, M., Hughes, J., Javadian, A., et al. (1998) Genetic immunization of chimpanzees chronically infected with the hepatitis B virus, using a recombinant retroviral vector encoding the hepatitis B virus core antigen. Hum. Gene Ther. 9, 1719–1729.
Prince, A. M., Lee, D. H., and Brotman, B. (2001) Infectivity of blood from PCR-positive, HBsAg-negative, anti-HBs-positive cases of resolved hepatitis B infection. Transfusion (3), 329–332.
Kremsdorf, D., Garreau, F., Duclos, H., et al. (1993) Complete nucleotide sequence and viral envelope protein expression of a hepatitis B virus DNA derived from a hepatitis B surface antigen-seronegative patient. J. Hepatol. 18, 244–250.
Bock, C-T., Tillman, H.L., Maschek, H-J., Manns, M.P., and Trautwein, C. (1982) A PreS mutation isolated from a patient with chronic hepatitis B infection leads to virus retention and misassembly. Gastroenterology 113, 1996–1982.
Shikata, T., Karasawa, T., and Abe, K. (1980) Two distinct types of hepatitis in experimental hepatitis B virus infection. Am. J. Pathol. 99, 353–363.
Federal News Service, (2000) Hearing of the Health and Environment Subcommittee of the House Commerce Committee: Chimpanzees and Biomedical Research, chaired by Rep. Michael Bilirakis (18 May).
Hu, X., Margolis, H.S., Purcell, R. H., Ebert, J., and Robertson, B.H. (2000) Identification of hepatitis B virus indigenous to chimpanzees. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 1661–1664.
Takahashi, K., Brotman, B., Usuda, S., Mishiro, S., and Prince, A. M. (2000) Full-genome sequence analyses of hepatitis B virus (HBV) strains recovered from chimpanzees infected in the wild: implications for an origin of HBV. Virology 267, 58–64.
MacDonald, D.M., Holmes, E.C., Lewis, J.C., and Simmonds, P. (2000) Detection of hepatitis B virus infection in wild-born chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus): phylogenetic relationships with human and other primate genotypes. J. Virol. 74, 4253–4257.
Vartanian, J-P., Pineau, P., Henry, M., et al. (2002) Identification of a hepatitis B virus genome in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurth:) from East Africa indicates a wide geographical dispersion among equatorial African primates. J. Virol. 76, 11,155–11,158.
Zuckerman, A.J., Thornton, A., Howard, C.R., Tsiquaye, K.N., Jones, D.M., and Brambell, M. R. (1978) Hepatitis B outbreak among chimpanzees at the London Zoo. Lancet 2, 652–654.
Vaudin, M., Wolstenholme, A. J., Tsiquaye, K.N., Zuckerman, A. J., and Harrison, T.J. (1989) The complete nucleotide sequence of the genome of a hepatitis B virus isolated from a naturally infected chimpanzee. J. Gen. Virol. 69, 1383–1389.
Grethe, S., Heckel, J.O., Rietschel, W., and Hufert, F.T. (2000) Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis B virus variants in nonhuman primates. J. Virol. 74, 5377–5381.
Norder, H., Ebert, J.W., Fields, H.A., Mushahwar, I.K., and Magnius, L.O. (1996) Complete sequencing of a gibbon hepatitis B virus genome reveals a unique genotype distantly related to the chimpanzee hepatitis B virus. Virology 218, 214–223.
Fares, M.A., and Holmes, E. C. (2002) A revised evolutionary history of hepatitis B virus (HBV) J. Mol. Evol. 54, 807–814.
Lanford, R. E., Chavez, D., Brasky, K. M., Burns, R. B. 3rd, and Rico-Hesse, R. (1998) Isolation of a hepadnavirus from the woolly monkey, a New World primate. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 5757–5761.
Ghany, M.G., Ayola, B., Villamil, F. G., et al. (1998) Hepatitis B virus S mutants in liver transplant recipients who were reinfected despite hepatitis B immune globulin prophylaxis. Hepatology 27, 213–222.
Bowyer, S.M., and Sim, J.G. (2000) Relationships within and between genotypes of hepatitis B virus at points across the genome: footprints of recombination in certain isolates. J. Gen. Virol. 81(Pt 2), 379–392.
Hannoun, C., Norder, H., and Lindh, M.(2000) An aberrant genotype revealed in recombinant hepatitis B virus strains from Vietnam. J. Gen. Virol. 81(Pt 9), 2267–2272.
Kils-Hutten, L., Cheynier, R., Wain-Hobson, S., and Meyerhans, A. (2001) Phylogenetic reconstruction of intrapatient evolution of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: predominance of drift and purifying selection. J. Gen. Virol. 82(Pt 7), 1621–1627.
Bollyky, P.L. and Holmes, E. C. (1999) Reconstructing the complex evolutionary history of hepatitis B virus. J. Mol. Evol. 49, 130–141.
Sibley, C.G., and Ahlquist, J. E. (1984) The phylogeny of the hominoid primates, as indicated by DNA-DNA hybridization. J. Mol. Evol. 20, 2–15.
Chen, F.C., and Li, W.H. (2001) Genomic divergences between humans and other hominoids and the effective population size of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 68, 444–456.
Hodson, H. H., Jr., Lee, B.D., Wisecup, W. G., and Fineg, J. (1967) Baseline blood values of the chimpanzee. I. The relationship of age and sex and hematological values. Folia Primatol. (Basel) 7, 1–11.
Adams, E.J., and Parham, P. (2001) Species-specific evolution of MHC class I genes in the higher primates. Immunol. Rev. 183, 41–64.
Adams, E.J., Cooper, S., Thomson, G., and Parham, P. (2000) Common chimpanzees have greater diversity than humans at two of the three highly polymorphic MHC class I genes. Immunogenetics 51, 410–424.
McAdam, S.N., Boyson, J.E., Liu, X., et al. (1995) Chimpanzee MHC class I A locus alleles are related to only one of the six families of human A locus alleles. J. Immunol. 154, 6421–6429.
de Groot, N. G., Otting, N., Arguello, R., et al. (2000) Major histocompatibility complex class I diversity in a West African chimpanzee population: implications for HIV research. Immunogenetics 51, 398–409.
de Groot, N. G., Otting, N., Doxiadis, G. G. M., et al. (2002) An ancient selective sweep in the MHC class I gene repertoire of chimpanzees. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 11748–11753.
Bertoni, R., Sette, A., Sidney, J., et al. (1998) Human class I supertypes and CTL repertoires extend to chimpanzees. J. Immunol. 161, 4447–4455.
Bontrop, R.E., Otting, N., de Groot, N. G., and Doxiadis, G. G. (1999) Major histocompatibility complex class II polymorphisms in primates. Immunol Rev. 167, 339–350.
Balla-Jhagjhoorsingh, S.S., Koopman, G., Mooij, P., et al. (1999) Conserved CTL epitopes shared between HIV-infected human long-term survivors and chimpanzees. J. Immunol. 162, 2308–2314.
Andrieu, M., Chassin, D., Desoutter, J. F., et al. (2001) Downregulation of major histocom-patibility class I on human dendritic cells by HIV Nef impairs antigen presentation to HIV-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 17, 1365–1370.
Adams E.J., Cooper, S., and Parham, P. (2001) A novel, nonclassical MHC class I molecule specific to the common chimpanzee. J. Immunol. 167, 3858–3869.
Khakoo, S.I., Rajalingam, R., Shum, B. P., et al. (2000) Rapid evolution of NK cell receptor systems demonstrated by comparison of chimpanzees and humans. Immunity 12, 687–698.
Muchmore, E. A., Diaz, S., and Varki, A. (1998) A structural difference between the cell surfaces of humans and the great apes. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 107, 187–198.
Brinkman-Van der Linden, E. C., Sjoberg, E.R., Juneja, L. R., Crocker, P. R., Varki, N., and Varki, A. (2000) Loss of N-glycolylneuraminic acid in human evolution. Implications for sialic acid recognition by siglecs. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 8633–8640.
Angata, T., Varki, N.M., and Varki, A. (2001) A second uniquely human mutation affecting sialic acid biology. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 40282–40287.
Crocker, P.R. and Varki, A. (2001) Siglecs in the immune system. Immunology 103, 137–145.
Mehta, A., Block, T.M., and Dwek, R.A. (1998) The role of N-linked glycosylation in the secretion of hepatitis B virus. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 435, 195–205.
Rother, R. P. and Galili, U. (1999) Alpha-Gal epitopes on viral glycoproteins. Subcell. Biochem. 32, 143–172.
Atkins, G.J., Qiao, M., Coombe, D.R., Gowans, E.J., and Ashman, L.K. (1997) Hepatitis B virus binding to leucocyte plasma membranes utilizes a different region of the preS1 domain to the hepatocyte receptor binding site and does not require receptors for opsonins. Immunol. Cell Biol. 75, 259–266.
Budkowska, A., Quan, C., Groh, F., et al. (1993) Hepatitis B virus (HBV) binding factor in human serum: candidate for a soluble form of hepatocyte HBV receptor. J. Virol. 67, 4316–4322.
Neurath, A. R., Kent, S.B., Strick, N., and Parker, K.(1986) Identification and chemical synthesis of a host cell receptor binding site on hepatitis B virus. Cell 46, 429–436.
Check, E. (2002) Bank wants money back from troubled chimp facility. Nature 415, 248.
Santiago, M.L., Rodenburg, C.M., Kamenya, S., et al. (2002) SIVcpz in wild chimpanzees. Science 295, 465.
Lichter, E.A. (1969) Chimpanzee antibodies to Australia antigen. Nature 224, 810–811
Maynard, J. E., Hartwell, W.V., and Berquist, K.R. (1971) Hepatitis-associated antigen in chimpanzees. J. Infect. Dis. 123, 660–664.
Lander, H.J., Holland, P. V., Alter, H. J., Chanock, R.M., and Purcell, R. H. (1972) Antibody to hepatitis-associated antigen. Frequency and pattern of response as detected by radioimmunoprecipitation. JAMA 220, 1079–1082.
Eichberg, J. W. and Kalter, S. S. (1980) Hepatitis A and B: serologic survey of human and nonhuman primate sera. Lab. Anim. Sci. 30, 541–543.
Murphy, B.L., Maynard, J.E., and Le Bouvier, G.L. (1974) Viral subtypes and cross-protection in hepatitis B virus infections of chimpanzees. Intervirology 3, 378–81
Bradley, D.W., Maynard, J.E., Berquist, K.R., and Krushak, D.H. (1974) Hepatitis B and serum DNA polymerase activities in chimpanzees. Nature 251, 356–357.
Markenson, J.A., Gerety, R. J., Hoofnagle, J. H., and Barker, L. F. (1975) Effects of cyclophosphamide on hepatitis B virus infection and challenge in chimpanzees. J. Infect. Dis. 131, 79–87.
Berquist, K. R., Peterson, J. M., Murphy, B.L., Ebert, J. W., Maynard, J. E., and Purcell, R. H. (1975) Hepatitis B antigens in serum and liver of chimpanzees acutely infected with hepatitis B virus. Infect. Immun. 12, 602–605.
Alter, H. J., Purcell, R. H., Gerin, J. L., et al. (1977) Transmission of hepatitis B to chimpanzees by hepatitis B surface antigen-positive saliva and semen. Infect. Immun. 16, 928–933.
Shikata, T., Karasawa, T., Abe, K., et al. (1977) Hepatitis B e antigen and infectivity of hepatitis B virus. J. Infect. Dis. 136, 571–576.
Tabor, E., Gerety, R. J., Barker, L.F., Howard, C. R., and Zuckerman, A.J. (1978) Effect of ethanol during hepatitis B virus infection in chimpanzees. J. Med. Virol. 2, 295–303.
Ling, C. M., Mushahwar, I.K., Overby, L. R., Berquist, K. R., Maynard, J.E. (1979) Hepatitis B e-antigen and its correlation with other serological markers in chimpanzees. Infect. Immun. 24, 352–356.
Sly, D.L., London, W.T., and Purcell, R.H. (1979) Illness in a chimpanzee inoculated with hepatitis B virus. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 175, 987–988.
Takahashi, K., Miyakawa, Y., Gotanda, T., Mishiro, S., Imai, M., and Mayumi, M. (1979) Shift from free “small” hepatitis B e antigen to IgG-bound “large” form in the circulation of human beings and a chimpanzee acutely infected with hepatitis B virus. Gastroenterology 77, 1193–1199
Tabor, E., Frosner, G., Deinhardt, F., and Gerety, R.J. (1980) Hepatitis B e antigen and antibody: detection by radioimmunoassay in chimpanzees during experimental hepatitis Br. J. Med. Virol. 6, 91–99
Bond, W.W., Peterson, N. J., Favero, M. S., Ebert, J. W., Maynard, J. E. (1982) Transmission of type B viral hepatitis via eye inoculation of a chimpanzee. J. Clin. Microbiol. 15, 533–534.
Will, H., Darai, G., Deinhardt, F., Schellekens, H., and Schaller, H. (1983) Hepatitis B after infection of a chimpanzee with cloned HBV DNA. Dev. Biol. Stand. 54, 131–133.
Will, H., Cattaneo, R., Darai, G., Deinhardt, F., Schellekens, H., and Schaller, H. (1985) Infectious hepatitis B virus from cloned DNA of known nucleotide sequence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82, 891–895.
Wands, J. R., Fujita, Y. K., Isselbacher, K. J., et al. (1986) Identification and transmission of hepatitis B virus-related variants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 6608–6612
Acs, G., Sells, M.A., Purcell, R.H., et al. (1987) Hepatitis B virusvirus produced by trans-fected Hep G2 cells causes hepatitis in chimpanzees. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84, 4641–4644.
Sureau, C., Eichberg, J.W., Hubbard, G.B., Romet-Lemonne, J.L., and Essex, M. (1988) A molecularly cloned hepatitis B virus produced in vitro is infectious in a chimpanzee. J. Virol. 62, 3064–3067.
Thiers, V., Nakajima, E., Kremsdorf, D., et al. (1988) Transmission of hepatitis B from hepatitis-B-seronegative subjects. Lancet 2, 1273–1276.
Shih, C., Yu, M. Y., Li, L. S., and Shih, J.W. (1990) Hepatitis B virus propagated in a rat hepatoma cell line is infectious in a primate model. Virology 179, 871–873.
Ogata, N., Zanetti, A.R., Yu, M., Miller, R. H., and Purcell, R.H. (1997) Infectivity and pathogenicity in chimpanzees of a surface gene mutant of hepatitis B virus that emerged in a vaccinated infant. J. Infect. Dis. 175, 511–523
Ibrahim, A. B., Vyas, G. N., and Prince, A.M. (1974) Studies on delayed hypersensitivity to hepatitis B antigen in chimpanzees. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 17, 311–318.
Buynak, E.B., Roehm, R.R., Tytell, A.A., Bertland, A.U, 2nd, Lampson, G.P., and Hilleman, M.R. (1976) Vaccine against human hepatitis B. JAMA 235, 2832–2834.
Hollinger, F. B., Gitnick, G.L., Aach, R. D., et al. (1978) Non-A, non-B hepatitis transmission in chimpanzees: a project of the transfusion-transmitted viruses study group. Intervirology 10, 60–68.
Prince, A. M. (1977) Prevention of hepatitis B infections by passive immunization. Ric. Clin. Lab. 7, 198–208.
Hilleman, M.R., Provost, P.J., Villarejos, V. M., et al. Infectious hepatitis (hepatitis A) research in nonhuman primates. Bull. Pan Am. Health Org. 11, 140–152.
Purcell, R. H. and Gerin, J. L. (1978) Hepatitis B vaccines. On the threshold. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 70(1 Suppl), 159–169.
Prince, A. M., Ikram, H., and Hopp, T. P. (1982) Hepatitis B virus vaccine: identification of HBsAg/a and HBsAg/d but not HBsAg/y subtype antigenic determinants on a synthetic immunogenic peptide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79, 579–583.
Prince, A.M., Vnek, J., and Stephan, W. (1983) A new hepatitis B vaccine containing HBeAg in addition to HBsAg. Dev. Biol. Stand. 54, 13–22.
Karasawa, T., Shikata, T., Abe, K., et al. (1983) Efficacy of hepatitis B vaccine in chimpanzees given transfusions of highly infective blood. J. Infect. Dis. 147, 327–335.
Tabor, E., Purcell, R. H., and Gerety, R. J.(1983) Primate animal models and titered inocula for the study of human hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and non-A, non-B hepatitis. J. Med. Primatol. 12, 305–318.
Berthelot, P., Courouce, A.M., Eyquem, A., et al. (1984) Hepatitis B vaccine safety monitoring in the chimpanzee: interpretation of results. J. Med. Primatol. 13, 119–133.
Moss, B., Smith, G.L., Gerin, J. L., and Purcell, R. H. (1984) Live recombinant vaccinia virus protects chimpanzees against hepatitis B. Nature 311, 67–69.
Stephan, W., Prince, A. M., and Brotman, B. (1984) Modulation of hepatitis B infection by intravenous application of an immunoglobulin preparation that contains antibodies to hepatitis B e and core antigens but not to hepatitis B surface antigen. J. Virol. 51, 420–424.
Ohmura, T., Ohmizu, A., Sumi, A., et al. (1987) Properties of recombinant hepatitis B vaccine. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 149, 1172–1178.
Bitter, G.A., Egan, K. M., Burnette, W. N., et al. (1988) Hepatitis B vaccine produced in yeast. J. Med. Virol. 25, 123–140.
Prince, A.M., Whalen, R., and Brotman, B. (1997) Successful nucleic acid based immunization of newborn chimpanzees against hepatitis B virus. Vaccine 15, 916–919.
Pride, M.W., Bailey, C.R., Muchmore, E., and Thanavala, Y. (1998) Evaluation of B and T-cell responses in chimpanzees immunized with Hepagene, a hepatitis B vaccine containing pre-S1, pre-S2 gene products. Vaccine 16, 543–550.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2004 Humana Press Inc.
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Gagneux, P., Muchmore, E.A. (2004). The Chimpanzee Model. In: Hamatake, R.K., Lau, J.Y.N. (eds) Hepatitis B and D Protocols. Methods in Molecular Medicine™, vol 96. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-670-3:289
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-670-3:289
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-108-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-670-6
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols