Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the United States. One in three men and one in ten women develop severe cardiovascular disease before the age of 60, resulting in health expenditures of over $100 billion per year. Even though cardiovascular disease primarily affects people advanced in age, disease progression begins early. Initiation of atherogenesis via formation of fatty streaks can occur as early as infancy (1).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Napoli, C., D’Armiento, F. P., Mancini, F. P., Postiglione, A., Witztum, J. L., Palumbo, G., et al. (1997) Fatty streak formation occurs in human fetal aortas and is greatly enhanced by maternal hypercholesterolemia. Intimal accumulation of low density lipoprotein and its oxidation precede monocyte recruitment into early atherosclerotic lesions. J. Clin Invest. 100, 2680–2690.
Stary, H. C., Chandler, A. B., Glagov, S., Guyton, J. R., Insull, W., Jr., Rosenfeld, M. E., et al. (1994) A definition of initial, fatty streak, and intermediate lesions of atherosclerosis. A report from the Committee on Vascular Lesions of the Council on Arteriosclerosis, American Heart Association. Circulation 89, 2462–2478.
Jonasson, L., Holm, J., Skalli, O., Bondjers, G., and Hansson, G. K. (1986) Regional accumulations of T cells, macrophages, and smooth muscle cells in the human atherosclerotic plaque. Arteriosclerosis 6, 131–138.
van der Wal, A. C., Das, P. K., Bentz, V. B., van der Loos, C. M., and Becker, A. E. (1989) Atherosclerotic lesions in humans. In situ immunophenotypic analysis suggesting an immune mediated response. Lab. Invest. 61, 166–170.
McLenachan, J. M., Williams, J. K., Fish, R. D., Ganz, P., and Selwyn, A. P. (1991) Loss of flow-mediated endothelium-dependent dilation occurs early in the development of atherosclerosis. Circulation 84, 1273–1278.
Kinlay, S. and Ganz, P. (1997) Role of endothelial dysfunction in coronary artery disease and implications for therapy. Am. J. Cardiol. 80, 11I–16I.
Morel, D. W., Hessler, J. R., and Chisolm, G. M. (1983) Low density lipoprotein cytotoxicity induced by free radical peroxidation of lipid. J. Lipid Res. 24, 1070–1076.
Griendling, K. K. and Alexander, R. W. (1997) Oxidative stress and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 96, 3264–3265.
Swei, A., Lacy, F., DeLano, F. A., and Schmid-Schonbein, G. W. (1997) Oxidative stress in the Dahl hypertensive rat. Hypertension 30, 1628–1633.
Vanhoutte, P. M. and Boulanger, C. M. (1995) Endothelium-dependent responses in hypertension. Hypertens. Res. 18, 87–98.
Hajjar, K. A. (1993) Homocysteine-induced modulation of tissue plasminogen activator binding to its endothelial cell membrane receptor. J. Clin Invest. 91, 2873–2879.
Harker, L. A., Ross, R., Slichter, S. J., and Scott, C. R. (1976) Homocystine-induced arteriosclerosis. The role of endothelial cell injury and platelet response in its genesis. J. Clin Invest. 58, 731–741.
Upchurch, G. R., Jr., Welch, G. N., Fabian, A. J., Freedman, J. E., Johnson, J. L., Keaney, J. F., Jr., et al. (1997) Homocysteine decreases bioavailable nitric oxide by a mechanism involving glutathione peroxidase. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 17012–17017.
Majors, A., Ehrhart, L. A., and Pezacka, E. H. (1997) Homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease. Enhanced collagen production and accumulation by smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 17, 2074–2081.
Bellamy, M. F., McDowell, I. F., Ramsey, M. W., Brownlee, M., Bones, C., Newcombe, R. G., et al. (1998) Hyperhomocysteinemia after an oral methionine load acutely impairs endothelial function in healthy adults. Circulation 98, 1848–1852.
Quyyumi, A. A., Dakak, N., Andrews, N. P., Husain, S., Arora, S., Gilligan, D. M., et al. (1995) Nitric oxide activity in the human coronary Circulation. Impact of risk factors for coronary atherosclerosis. J. Clin Invest. 95, 1747–1755.
Gimbrone, M. A., Jr., Topper, J. N., Nagel, T., Anderson, K. R., and Garcia-Cardena, G. (2000) Endothelial dysfunction, hemodynamic forces, and atherogenesis. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 902, 230–239.
Topper, J. N. and Gimbrone, M. A., Jr. (1999) Blood flow and vascular gene expression: Fluid shear stress as a modulator of endothelial phenotype. Mol. Med. Today 5, 40–46.
Libby, P., Friedman, G. B., and Salomon, R. N. (1989) Cytokines as modulators of cell proliferation in fibrotic diseases. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 140, 1114–1117.
Raines, E. W., Dower, S. K., and Ross, R. (1989) Interleukin-1 mitogenic activity for fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells is due to PDGF-AA. Science 243, 393–396.
Old, L. J. (1985) Tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Science 230, 630–632.
Amento, E. P., Ehsani, N., Palmer, H., and Libby, P. (1991) Cytokines and growth factors positively and negatively regulate interstitial collagen gene expression in human vascular smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler. Thromb. 11, 1223–1230.
Libby, P, Warner, S. J., and Friedman, G. B. (1988) Interleukin 1: A mitogen for human vascular smooth muscle cells that induces the release of growth-inhibitory prostanoids. J. Clin. Invest. 81, 487–498.
Cybulsky, M. I. and Gimbrone, M. A., Jr. (1991) Endothelial expression of a mononuclear leukocyte adhesion molecule during atherogenesis. Science 251, 788–791.
Bevilacqua, M. P., Stengelin, S., Gimbrone, M. A., Jr., and Seed, B. (1989) Endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule 1: An inducible receptor for neutrophils related to complement regulatory proteins and lectins. Science 243, 1160–1165.
Pober, J. S. and Cotran, R. S. (1990) Cytokines and endothelial cell biology. Physiol. Rev. 70, 427–451.
Loppnow, H. and Libby, P. (1990) Proliferating or interleukin 1-activated human vascular smooth muscle cells secrete copious interleukin 6. J. Clin Invest. 85, 731–738.
Valente, A. J., Graves, D. T., Vialle-Valentin, C. E., Delgado, R., and Schwartz, C. J. (1988) Purification of a monocyte chemotactic factor secreted by nonhuman primate vascular cells in culture. Biochemistry 27, 4162–4168.
Gay, C. G., and Winkles, J. A. (1991) Interleukin 1 regulates heparin-binding growth factor 2 gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 296–300.
Warner, S. J., Friedman, G. B., and Libby, P. (1989) Regulation of major histocompatibility gene expression in human vascular smooth muscle cells. Arteriosclerosis 9, 279–288.
Galis, Z. S., Muszynski, M., Sukhova, G. K., Simon-Morrissey, E., Unemori, E. N., Lark, M. W., et al. (1994) Cytokine-stimulated human vascular smooth muscle cells synthesize a complement of enzymes required for extracellular matrix digestion. Circ. Res. 75, 181–189.
Battegay, E. J., Raines, E. W., Seifert, R. A., Bowen-Pope, D. F., and Ross, R. (1990) TGF-beta induces bimodal proliferation of connective tissue cells via complex control of an autocrine PDGF loop. Cell 63, 515–524.
Moses, H. L., Yang, E. Y., and Pietenpol, J. A. (1990) TGF-beta stimulation and inhibition of cell proliferation: New mechanistic insights. Cell 63, 245–247.
Butcher, E. C. (1991) Leukocyte-endothelial cell recognition: Three (or more) steps to specificity and diversity. Cell 67, 1033–1036.
Lorant, D. E., Patel, K. D., McIntyre, T. M., McEver, R. P., Prescott, S. M., and Zimmerman, G. A. (1991) Coexpression of GMP-140 and PAF by endothelium stimulated by histamine or thrombin: A juxtacrine system for adhesion and activation of neutrophils. J. Cell. Biol. 115, 223–234.
Dustin, M. L., Rothlein, R., Bhan, A. K., Dinarello, C. A., and Springer, T. A. (1986) Induction by IL 1 and interferon-gamma: Tissue distribution, biochemistry, and function of a natural adherence molecule (ICAM-1). J. Immunol. 137, 245–254.
Bevilacqua, M. P., Pober, J. S., Mendrick, D. L., Cotran, R. S., and Gimbrone, M. A., Jr. (1987) Identification of an inducible endothelial-leukocyte adhesion molecule. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84, 9238–9242.
Munro, J. M., Pober, J. S., and Cotran, Ra. S. (1989) Tumor necrosis factor and interferongamma induce distinct patterns of endothelial activation and associated leukocyte accumulation in skin of Papio anubis. Am. J. Pathol. 135, 121–133.
Cotran, R. S., Gimbrone, M. A., Jr., Bevilacqua, M. P., Mendrick, D. L., and Pober, J. S. (1986) Induction and detection of a human endothelial activation antigen in vivo. J. Exp. Med. 164, 661–666.
Lo, S. K., Detmers, P. A., Levin, S. M., and Wright, S. D. (1989) Transient adhesion of neutrophils to endothelium. J. Exp. Med. 169, 1779–1793.
Gamble, J. R., Harlan, J. M., Klebanoff, S. J., and Vadas, M. A. (1985) Stimulation of the adherence of neutrophils to umbilical vein endothelium by human recombinant tumor necrosis factor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82, 8667–8671.
Miller, L. J., Bainton, D. F., Borregaard, N., and Springer, T. A. (1987) Stimulated mobilization of monocyte Mac-1 and p150,95 adhesion proteins from an intracellular vesicular compartment to the cell surface. J. Clin. Invest. 80, 535–544.
Werb, Z. and Gordon, S. (1975) Secretion of a specific collagenase by stimulated macrophages. J. Exp. Med. 142, 346–360.
Mainardi, C. L., Seyer, J. M., and Kang, A. H. (1980) Type-specific collagenolysis: a type V collagen-degrading enzyme from macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 97, 1108–1115.
Werb, Z., Gordon, S. (1975) Elastase secretion by stimulated macrophages. Characterization and regulation. J. Exp. Med. 142, 361–377.
Hajjar, K. A., Hajjar, D. P., Silverstein, R. L., and Nachman, R. L. (1987) Tumor necrosis factor-mediated release of platelet-derived growth factor from cultured endothelial cells. J. Exp. Med. 166, 235–245.
Leonard, E. J. and Yoshimura, T. (1990) Human monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Immunol. Today 11, 97–101.
Bjorkerud, S. and Bjorkerud, B. (1996) Apoptosis is abundant in human atherosclerotic lesions, especially in inflammatory cells (macrophages and T cells), and may contribute to the accumulation of gruel and plaque instability. Am. J. Pathol. 149, 367–380.
Munro, J. M. and Cotran, R. S. (1998) The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: Atherogenesis and inflammation. Lab. Invest. 58, 249–261.
Campbell, G. R., Campbell, J. H., Manderson, J. A., Horrigan, S., and Rennick, R. E. (1988) Arterial smooth muscle. A multifunctional mesenchymal cell. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 112, 977–986.
Henney, A. M., Wakeley, P. R., Davies, M. J., Foster, K., Hembry, R., Murphy, G., et al. (1991) Localization of stromelysin gene expression in atherosclerotic plaques by in situ hybridization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 8154–8158.
Galis, Z.S, Sukhova, G. K., Lark, M. W., and Libby, P. (1994) Increased expression of matrix metalloproteinases and matrix degrading activity in vulnerable regions of human atherosclerotic plaques. J. Clin Invest. 94, 2493–2503.
Windsor, A. C., Walsh, C. J., Mullen, P. G., Cook, D. J., Fisher, B. J., Blocher, C. R., et al. (1993) Tumor necrosis factor-alpha blockade prevents neutrophil CD18 receptor upregulation and attenuates acute lung injury in porcine sepsis without inhibition of neutrophil oxygen radical generation. J. Clin Invest. 91, 1459–1468.
Han, J., Thompson, P., and Beutler, B. (1990) Dexamethasone and pentoxifylline inhibit endotoxin-induced cachectin/tumor necrosis factor synthesis at separate points in the signaling pathway. J. Exp. Med. 172, 391–394.
Endres, S., Fulle, H. J., Sinha, B., Stoll, D., Dinarello, C. A., Gerzer, R., et al. (1991) Cyclic nucleotides differentially regulate the synthesis of tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 beta by human mononuclear cells. Immunology 72, 56–60.
Kern, J. A., Lamb, R. J., Reed, J. C., Daniele, R. P., and Nowell, P. C. (1988) Dexamethasone inhibition of interleukin 1 beta production by human monocytes. Posttranscriptional mechanisms. J. Clin Invest. 81, 237–244.
Sano, H., Sudo, T., Yokode, M., Murayama, T., Kataoka, H., Takakura, N., et al. (2001) Functional blockade of platelet-derived growth factor receptor-beta but not of receptor-alpha prevents vascular smooth muscle cell accumulation in fibrous cap lesions in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Circulation 103, 2955–2960.
Nicolosi, R. J., Wilson, T. A., and Krause, B. R. (1998) The ACAT inhibitor, CI-1011 is effective in the prevention and regression of aortic fatty streak area in hamsters. Atherosclerosis 137, 77–85.
Sasahara, M., Raines, E. W., Chait, A., Carew, T. E., Steinberg, D., Wahl, et al. (1994) Inhibition of hypercholesterolemia-induced atherosclerosis in the nonhuman primate by probucol. I. Is the extent of atherosclerosis related to resistance of LDL to oxidation? J. Clin Invest. 94, 155–164.
Verlangieri, A. J. and Bush, M. J. (1992) Effects of d-alpha-tocopherol supplementation on experimentally induced primate atherosclerosis. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 11, 131–138.
Ikonomidis, I., Andreotti, F., Economou, E., Stefanadis, C., Toutouzas, P., and Nihoyannopoulos, P. (1999) Increased proinflammatory cytokines in patients with chronic stable angina and their reduction by aspirin. Circulation 100, 793–798.
Ridker, P. M., Rifai, N., Pfeffer, M. A., Sacks, F., and Braunwald, E. (1999) Long-term effects of pravastatin on plasma concentration of C-reactive protein. The Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) Investigators. Circulation 100, 230–235.
Bellosta, S., Bernini, F., Ferri, N, Quarato, P., Canavesi, M., Arnaboldi, L., et al. (1998) Direct vascular effects of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Atherosclerosis 137(Suppl), S101–S109.
Lacoste, L., Lam, J. Y., Hung, J., Letchacovski, G., Solymoss, C. B., and Waters, D. (1995) Hyperlipidemia and coronary disease. Correction of the increased thrombogenic potential with cholesterol reduction. Circulation 92, 3172–3177.
Ridker, P. M., Rifai, N., Pfeffer, M. A., Sacks, F. M., Moye, L. A., Goldman, S., et al. (1998) Inflammation, pravastatin, and the risk of coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) Investigators. Circulation 98, 839–844.
Kleinveld, H. A., Demacker, P. N., De Haan, A. F., and Stalenhoef, A. F. (1993) Decreased in vitro oxidizability of low-density lipoprotein in hypercholesterolaemic patients treated with 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors. Eur J. Clin Invest. 23, 289–295.
Gwechenberger, M., Mendoza, L. H., Youker, K. A., Frangogiannis, N. G., Smith, C. W., Michael, L. H., et al. (1999) Cardiac myocytes produce interleukin-6 in culture and in viable border zone of reperfused infarctions. Circulation 99, 546–551.
Irwin, M. W., Mak, S., Mann, D. L., Qu, R., Penninger, J. M., Yan, A., et al. (1999) Tissue expression and immunolocalization of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in postinfarction dysfunctional myocardium. Circulation 99, 1492–1498.
Entman, M. L., Youker, K., Shappell, S. B., Siegel, C., Rothlein, R., Dreyer, W. J., et al. (1990) Neutrophil adherence to isolated adult canine myocytes: Evidence for a CD18-dependent mechanism. J. Clin Invest. 85, 1497–1506.
Smith, C. W., Entman, M. L., Lane, C. L., Beaudet, A. L., Ty, T. I., Youker, K., et al. (1991) Adherence of neutrophils to canine cardiac myocytes in vitro is dependent on intercellular adhesion molecule-1. J. Clin Invest. 88, 1216–1223.
Das, U. N., Padma, M., Sagar, P. S., Ramesh, G., and Koratkar, R. (1990) Stimulation of free radical generation in human leukocytes by various agents including tumor necrosis factor is a calmodulin dependent process. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 167, 1030–1036.
Aoki, N., Siegfried, M., and Lefer, A. M. (1989) Anti-EDRF effect of tumor necrosis factor in isolated, perfused cat carotid arteries. Am. J. Physiol. 256, H1509–H1512.
Lefer, A. M. and Aoki, N. (1990) Leukocyte-dependent and leukocyte-independent mechanisms of impairment of endothelium-mediated vasodilation. Blood Vessels 27, 162–168.
Cain, B. S., Harken, A. H., and Meldrum, D. R. (1999) Therapeutic strategies to reduce TNF-alpha mediated cardiac contractile depression following ischemia and reperfusion. J. Mol. Cell Cardiol. 31, 931–947.
Gumina, R. J., Schultz, J., Yao, Z., Kenny, D., Warltier, D. C., Newman, P. J., et al. (1996) Antibody to platelet/endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 reduces myocardial infarct size in a rat model of ischemia-reperfusion injury. Circulation 94, 3327–3333.
Jones, S. P., Trocha, S. D., Strange, M. B., Granger, D. N., Kevil, C. G., Bullard, D. C., et al. (2000) Leukocyte and endothelial cell adhesion molecules in a chronic murine model of myocardial reperfusion injury. Am. J. Physiol. 279, H2196–H2201.
Lucchesi, B. R. (1990) Modulation of leukocyte-mediated myocardial reperfusion injury. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 52, 561–576.
Ferrer-Lopez, P., Renesto, P., Schattner, M., Bassot, S., Laurent, P., and Chignard, M. (1990) Activation of human platelets by C5a-stimulated neutrophils: A role for cathepsin G. Am. J. Physiol. 258, C1100–C1107.
Suzuku, M., Asako, H., Kubes, P., Jennings, S., Grisham, M. B., and Granger, D. N. Neutrophil-derived oxidants promote leukocyte adherence in postcapillary venules. Microvasc. Res. 42, 125–138.
Borgeat, P. and Samuelsson, B. Metabolism of arachidonic acid in polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Structural analysis of novel hydroxylated compounds. J. Biol. Chem. 254, 7865–7869.
Lotner, G. Z., Lynch, J. M., Betz, S. J., and Henson, P. M. (1980) Human neutrophil-derived platelet activating factor. J. Immunol. 124, 676–684.
Montrucchio, G., Alloatti, G., Tetta, C., De Luca, R., Saunders, R. N., Emanuelli,G., Camussi, G. (1989) Release of platelet-activating factor from ischemic-reperfused rabbit heart. Am. J. Physiol. 256, H1236–H1246.
Boyle, E. M., Jr., Canty, T. G., Jr., Morgan, E. N., Yun, W., Pohlman, T. H., and Verrier, E. D. (1999) Treating myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury by targeting endothelial cell transcription. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 68, 1949–1953.
Fridovich, I. (1983) Superoxide radical: An endogenous toxicant. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 23, 239–257.
McCord, J. M., Fridovich, I. (1978) The biology and pathology of oxygen radicals. Ann. Intern. Med. 89, 122–127.
Chandrasekar, B., Colston, J. T., Geimer, J., Cortez, D., and Freeman, G. L. (2000) Induction of nuclear factor kappaB but not kappaB-responsive cytokine expression during myocardial reperfusion injury after neutropenia. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 28, 1579–1588.
Collins, T., Read, M. A., Neish, A. S., Whitley, M. Z., Thanos, D, and Maniatis, T. (1995) Transcriptional regulation of endothelial cell adhesion molecules: NF-kappa B and cytokine-inducible enhancers. FASEB J. 9, 899–909.
Del Maestro, R. F. (1980) An approach to free radicals in medicine and biology. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 492, 153–168.
McCord, J. M. (1985) Oxygen-derived free radicals in postischemic tissue injury. N. Engl. J. Med. 312, 159–163.
Ferrari, R., Ceconi, C., Curello, S., Guarnieri, C., Caldarera, C. M., Albertini, A., Visioli, O. (1985) Oxygen-mediated myocardial damage during ischaemia and reperfusion: role of the cellular defences against oxygen toxicity. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 17, 937–945.
Guarnieri, C., Flamigni, F., and Caldarera, C. M. (1980) Role of oxygen in the cellular damage induced by re-oxygenation of hypoxic heart. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 12, 797–808.
Kako, K. J. (1987) Free radical effects on membrane protein in myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 19, 209–211.
Ohto, H., Maeda, H., Shibata, Y., Chen, R. F., Ozaki, Y., Higashihara, M., et al. (1985) A novel leukocyte differentiation antigen: Two monoclonal antibodies TM2 and TM3 define a 120-kd molecule present on neutrophils, monocytes, platelets, and activated lymphoblasts. Blood 66, 873–881.
Ma, X. L., Lefer, D. J., Lefer, A. M., and Rothlein, R. (1992) Coronary endothelial and cardiac protective effects of a monoclonal antibody to intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. Circulation 86, 937–946.
Zhao, Z. Q., Lefer, D. J., Sato, H., Hart, K. K., Jefforda, P. R., and Vinten-Johansen, J. (1997) Monoclonal antibody to ICAM-1 preserves postischemic blood flow and reduces infarct size after ischemia-reperfusion in rabbit. J. Leuk. Biol. 62, 292–300.
Arai, M., Lefer, D. J., So, T., DiPaula, A, Aversano, T., and Becker, L. C. (1996) An anti-CD18 antibody limits infarct size and preserves left ventricular function in dogs with ischemia and 48-hour reperfusion. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 27, 1278–1285.
Aversano, T., Zhou, W., Nedelman, M., Nakada, M., and Weisman, H. (1995) A chimeric IgG4 monoclonal antibody directed against CD18 reduces infarct size in a primate model of myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 25, 781–788.
Lefer, D. J. (2000) Pharmacology of selectin inhibitors in ischemia/reperfusion states. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 40, 283–294.
Hoffmeyer, M. R., Scalia, R., Ross, C. R., Jones, S. P., and Lefer, D. J. (2000) PR-39, a potent neutrophil inhibitor, attenuates myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury in mice. Am. J. Physiol. 279, H2824–H2828.
Altavilla, D., Deodato, B., Campo, G. M., Arlotta, M., Miano, M., Squadrito, G., et al. (2000) IRFI 042, a novel dual vitamin E-like antioxidant, inhibits activation of nuclear factor-kappaB and reduces the inflammatory response in myocardial ischemiareperfusion injury. Cardiovasc. Res. 47, 515–528.
Sakaguchi, T., Sawa, Y., Fukushima, N., Nishimura, M., Ichikawa, H., Kaneda, Y., Matsuda, H. (2001) A novel strategy of decoy transfection against nuclear factor-kappaB in myocardial preservation. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 71, 624–629.
Burke, S. E., Wright, C. D., Potoczak, R. E., Boucher, D. M., Dodd, G. D., Taylor, D. G., Jr., Kaplan, H. R. (1992) Reduction of canine myocardial infarct size by CI-959, an inhibitor of inflammatory cell activation. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 20, 619–629.
Gallagher, K. P., Buda, A. J., Pace, D., Gerren, R. A., and Shlafer, M. (1986) Failure of superoxide dismutase and catalase to alter size of infarction in conscious dogs after 3 hours of occlusion followed by reperfusion. Circulation 73, 1065–1076.
Jolly, S. R., Kane, W. J., Bailie, M. B., Abrams, G. D., and Lucchesi, B. R. (1984) Canine myocardial reperfusion injury. Its reduction by the combined administration of superoxide dismutase and catalase. Circ. Res. 54, 277–285.
Werns, S. W., Shea, M. J., Driscoll, E. M., Cohen, C., Abrams, G. D., Pitt, B., Lucchesi, B. R. (1985) The independent effects of oxygen radical scavengers on canine infarct size. Reduction by superoxide dismutase but not catalase. Circ. Res. 56, 895–898.
Jones, S. P., Hoffmeyer, M. R., Sharp, B. R., Ho, Y. S., and Lefer, D. J. (2003) Role of intracellular antioxidant enzymes after in vivo myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 284, H277–H282.
Engler, R. and Gilpin, E. (1989) Can superoxide dismutase alter myocardial infarct size? Circulation 79, 1137–1142.
Reimer, K. A. and Jennings, R. B. (1985) Failure of the xanthine oxidase inhibitor allopurinol to limit infarct size after ischemia and reperfusion in dogs. Circulation 71, 1069–1075.
Werns, S. W., Shea, M. J., Mitsos, S. E., Dysko, R. C., Fantone, J. C., Schork, M. A., et al. (1986) Reduction of the size of infarction by allopurinol in the ischemic-reperfused canine heart. Circulation 73, 518–524.
Puett, D. W., Forman, M. B., Cates, C. U., Wilson, B. H., Hande, K. R., Friesinger, G. C., Virmani, R. (1987) Oxypurinol limits myocardial stunning but does not reduce infarct size after reperfusion. Circulation 76, 678–686.
Virmani, R, Fink, L. M., Gunter, K., and English, D. (1984) Effect of perfluorochemical blood substitutes on human neutrophil function. Transfusion 24, 343–347.
Bajaj, A. K., Cobb, M. A., Virmani, R., Gay, J. C., Light, R. T., and Forman, M. B. (1989) Limitation of myocardial reperfusion injury by intravenous perfluorochemicals. Role of neutrophil activation. Circulation 79, 645–656.
Berne, R. M. (1980) The role of adenosine in the regulation of coronary blood flow. Circ. Res. 47, 807–813.
Cronstein, B. N., Levin, R. I., Belanoff, J., Weissmann, G., and Hirschhorn, R. (1986) Adenosine: an endogenous inhibitor of neutrophil-mediated injury to endothelial cells. J. Clin Invest. 78, 760–770.
Tanabe, M., Terashita, Z., Nishikawa, K., and Hirata, M. (1984) Inhibition of coronary circulatory failure and thromboxane A2 release during coronary occlusion and reperfusion by 2-phenylaminoadenosine (CV-1808) in anesthetized dogs. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 6, 442–448.
Ross, R., Raines, E. W., and Bowen-Pope, D. F. (1986) The biology of platelet-derived growth factor. Cell 46, 155–169.
Ferrell, M., Fuster, V., Gold, H. K., and Chesebro, J. H. (1992) A dilemma for the 1990s. Choosing appropriate experimental animal model for the prevention of restenosis. Circulation 85, 1630–1631.
Nobuyoshi, M., Kimura, T., Ohishi, H., Horiuchi, H., Nosaka, H., Hamasaki, N., et al. (1991) Restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty: pathologic observations in 20 patients. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 17, 433–439.
Harker, L. A. (1987) Role of platelets and thrombosis in mechanisms of acute occlusion and restenosis after angioplasty. Am. J. Cardiol. 60, 20B–28B.
Pober, J. S. (1988) Warner-Lambert/Parke-Davis award lecture. Cytokine-mediated activation of vascular endothelium. Physiology and pathology. Am. J. Pathol. 133, 426–433.
Mantovani, A. and Dejana, E. (1989) Cytokines as communication signals between leukocytes and endothelial cells. Immunol. Today 10, 370–375.
Paleolog, E. M., Crossman, D. C., McVey, J. H., and Pearson, J. D. (1990) Differential regulation by cytokines of constitutive and stimulated secretion of von Willebrand factor from endothelial cells. Blood 75, 688–695.
Springer, T. A. (1994) Traffic signals for lymphocyte re-Circulation and leukocyte emigration: The multi-step paradigm. Cell 76, 301–314.
Baumgartner, H. R., and Muggli, R. Adhesion and aggregation: morphological demonstration and quantification in vivo and in vitro, in Platelets in Biology and Pathology (Gordon, J. L., ed.), Elsevier Press Inc, Amsterdam, 1976, pp. 23–39.
Walker, L. N., Bowen-Pope, D. F., Ross, R., and Reidy, M. A. (1986) Production of platelet-derived growth factor-like molecules by cultured arterial smooth muscle cells accompanies proliferation after arterial injury. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 7311–7315.
Antiplatelet Trialists’ Collaboration. (1994) Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy-I: Prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatelet therapy in various categories of patients. Br. Med. J. 308, 81–106.
Maresta, A., Balducelli, M., Cantini, L., Casari, A., Chioin, R., Fabbri, M., et al. (1994) Trapidil (triazolopyrimidine), a platelet-derived growth factor antagonist, reduces restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Results of the randomized, double-blind STARC study. Studio Trapidil versus Aspirin nella Restenosi Coronarica. Circulation 90, 2710–2715.
Dosquet, C., Weill, D., and Wautier, J. L. (1995) Cytokines and thrombosis. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 25(Suppl 2), S13–S19.
Huang, J., Driscoll, E. M., Gonzales, M. L., Park, A. M., and Lucchesi, B. R. (2000) Prevention of arterial thrombosis by intravenously administered platelet P2T receptor antagonist AR-C69931MX in a canine model. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 295, 492–499.
Shi, Y., Fard, A., Galeo, A., Hutchinson, H. G., Vermani, P., Dodge, G. R., et al. (1994) Transcatheter delivery of c-myc antisense oligomers reduces neointimal formation in a porcine model of coronary artery balloon injury. Circulation 90, 944–951.
Palmer, R. M., Ashton, D. S., and Moncada, S. (1988) Vascular endothelial cells synthesize nitric oxide from L-arginine. Nature 333, 664–666.
Ignarro, L. J., Buga, G. M., Wood, K. S., Byrns, R. E., and Chaudhuri, G. (1987) Endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced and released from artery and vein is nitric oxide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84, 9265–9269.
Chowienczyk, P. J., Watts, G. F., Cockcroft, J. R., and Ritter, J. M. (1992) Impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation of forearm resistance vessels in hypercholesterolaemia. Lancet 340, 1430–1432.
Creager, M. A., Cooke, J. P., Mendelsohn, M. E., Gallagher, S. J., Coleman, S. M., Loscalzo, J., et al. (1990) Impaired vasodilation of forearm resistance vessels in hypercholesterolemic humans. J. Clin Invest. 86, 228–234.
Rubanyi, G. M. (1988) Vascular effects of oxygen-derived free radicals. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 4, 107–120.
Chu, A., Chambers, D. E., Lin, C. C., Kuehl, W. D., Palmer, R. M., Moncada, S., et al. (1991) Effects of inhibition of nitric oxide formation on basal vasomotion and endothelium-dependent responses of the coronary arteries in awake dogs. J. Clin Invest. 87, 1964–1968.
Kubes, P., Suzuki, M., and Granger, D. N. (1991) Nitric oxide: An endogenous modulator of leukocyte adhesion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 8, 4651–4655.
Bassenge, E. (1991) Antiplatelet effects of endothelium-derived relaxing factor and nitric oxide donors. Eur. Heart J. 12(Suppl E), 12–15.
Assender, J. W., Southgate, K. M., Hallett, M. B., and Newby, A. C. (1992) Inhibition of proliferation, but not of Ca2+ mobilization, by cyclic AMP and GMP in rabbit aortic smooth-muscle cells. Biochem. J. 288, 527–532.
Jessup, W., Mohr, D., Gieseg, S. P., Dean, R. T., and Stocker, R. (1992) The participation of nitric oxide in cell. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1180, 73–82.
Ohlstein, E. H. and Nichols, A. J. (1989) Rabbit polymorphonuclear neutrophils elicit endothelium-dependent contraction in vascular smooth muscle. Circ. Res. 65, 917–924.
Lefer, D. J., Jones, S. P., Girod, W. G., Baines, A., Grisham, M. B., Cockrell, A. S., et al. (1999) Leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in nitric oxide synthase-deficient mice. Am. J. Physiol. 276, H1943–H1950.
Barrett, M. L., Willis, A. L., and Vane, J. R. (1989) Inhibition of platelet-derived mitogen release by nitric oxide (EDRF). Agents Actions 27, 488–491.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2003 Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Smith, M.B., Lefer, D.J. (2003). Development of Anti-Inflammatory Drugs for Cardiovascular Disease. In: Pugsley, M.K. (eds) Cardiac Drug Development Guide. Methods in Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-404-2:87
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-404-2:87
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-097-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-404-7
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols