Abstract
Following translation, many proteins undergo further modifications that can dramatically affect both their physical properties and biological function (Wold and Moldave, 1984; Freedman and Hawkins, 1985; Harding and Crabbe, 1992). These posttranslational modifications are essential to the vitality of all eukaryotic cells, including neurons. Techniques that identify amino acid residues in a given protein that are modified and assess the effect of eliminating a specific modification site on a protein’s function, both in vitro or in the context of cellular expression, are useful in studying posttranslational modifications. The more traditional biochemical and immunological methods of studying posttranslational modification are discussed elsewhere in this book. However, the resources required for these approaches may not always be available or may yield equivocal results. Thus, the powerful tools of molecular biology may provide a viable alternative for identifying sites of posttranslational modification.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ausubel, F. M., Kingston, R. E., Moore, D D., Seidman, J. G., Smith, J A., and Struhl, K., eds. (1995) Current Protocols in Molecular Biology on CD-ROM. Liss, New York.
Batt, C. A., Cho, Y., and Jamieson, A. C. (1993) Selection of oligodeoxy-nucleotide-directed mutants, in Methods in Enzymology: Recombinant DNA, part H, vol. 217 (Wu, R., ed.), Academic, New York, pp. 280–286.
Bernhardt, G., Bibb, J. A., Bradley, J., and Wimmer, E. (1994) Molecular characterization of the cellular receptor for poliovirus. Virology 199, 105–113.
Bibb, J. A., Bernhardt, G., and Wimmer, E. (1994) The human poliovirus receptor PVR alpha is a serine phosphoprotein. J Virol. 68, 6111–6115.
Carter, P. (1991) Mutagenesis facilitated by the removal or introduction of unique restriction sites, in Directed Mutagenesis, A Practical Approach (McPherson, M. J., ed.), Academic, New York, pp. 1–24.
Conley, E. C. and Saunders, J. R. (1984) Recombination-dependent recircularization of linearized pBR322 plasmid following transformation of Escherichia coli. Mol Gen Genet. 194, 211–218.
Crowe, J, Dobeli, H., Gentz, R., Hochuli, E., Stüber, D., and Henco, K. (1994) 6XHis-Ni-NTA chromatography as a superior technique in recombinant protein expression/purification, in Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 31: Protocols for Gene Analysis (Harwood, A. J., ed.), Humana, Totowa, NJ, pp 371–387.
da Cruz e Silva, O. A, Iverfeldt, K., Oltersdorf, T., Sinha, S., Lieberburg, I., Ramabhadran, T. V., Suzuki, T., Sisodia, S. S., Gandy, S., and Greengard, P. (1993) Regulated cleavage of Alzheimer beta-amyloid precursor protein in the absence of the cytoplasmic tail. Neuroscience 57, 873–877.
Deng, W. P. and Nickoloff, J. A. (1992) Site-directed mutagenesis of virtually any plasmid by eliminating a unique site. Anal. Biochem 200, 81–88.
Desdouits, F., Cohen, D, Nairn, A. C, Greengard, P., and Girault, J.-A. (1995a) Phosphorylation of DARPP-32, a dopamine-and cAMP-regulated posphoprotein, by casein kinase I in vitro and in vivo. J Biol. Chem 270, 8772–8778.
Desdouits, F., Siciliano, J. L., Greengard, P., and Girault, J.-A. (1995b) Dopamine-and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein DARPP-32: phosphorylation of Ser-137 by casein kinase-I inhibits dephosphorylation of Thr-34 by calcineurin. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 42, 2682–2685.
Dieffenbach, C. W. (1995) in PCR Primer. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, pp. 581–622.
Dohadwala, M., da Cruz e Silva, E. F., Williams, R. T., Carbonaro-Hall, D. A., Nairn, A. C, Greengard, P., and Berndt, N. (1994) Phosphorylation and inactivation of protein phosphatase 1 by cyclin-dependent kinases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 6408–6412.
Dubendorff, J. W. and Studier, F. W. (1991) Controlling basal expression in an inducible T7 expression system by blocking the target T7 promoter with lac repressor. J. Mol. Biol. 219, 45–59
Freedman, R. B. and Hawkins, H. C. (1985) The Enzymology of Posttranslational Modification of Proteins, vol. 2, Academic, New York.
Gandy, S. E., Czernik, A. J., and Greengard, P. (1988) Phosphorylation of Alzheimer disease amyloid precursor protein peptide by protein kinase C and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases II. Proc Natl. Acad Sci. USA 85, 6218–6221.
Harding, J. J. and Crabbe, M. J. C. (1992) Posttranslational Modification of Proteins. CRC, Ann Arbor, MI.
Hemmings, H. C. J., Nairn, A. C, Bibb, J. A., and Greengard, P. (1995) Signal transduction in the striatum: DARPP-32 a molecular integrator of multiple signalling pathways, in Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Neostriatal Function (Ariano, M. A. and Surmeier, D J., eds.), Landes, Austin, TX, pp. 283–297.
Hofer, B. and Kühlein, B. (1993) Site-specific mutagenesis in plasmids-a gapped circle method, in Methods in Enzymology: Recombinant DNA, part H, vol. 217 (Wu, R, ed), Academic, New York, pp 173–189.
Horton, R. M. and Pease, L. R. (1991) Recombinantion and mutagenesis of DNA sequences using PCR, in Directed Mutagenesis, A Practical Approach (McPherson, M. J., ed.), IRL, New York, pp. 217–247
Horton, R. M., Ho, S. N., Pullen, J. K., Hunt., H. D., Cai, Z., and Pease, L R (1993) Gene splicing by overlap extension, in Methods in Enzymology: Recombinant DNA, part H, vol. 217 (Wu, R., ed), Academic, New York, pp. 270–279.
Hughes, M. J. G. and Andrews, D. W. (1996) Creation of deletion, insertion and substitution mutations using a single pair of primers and PCR. Biotechniques 20, 188–196.
Hunkapiller, M. W. (1991) Advances in DNA sequencing technology. Curr Opinion Gen Dev. 1, 88–92.
Innis, M. A., Gelfand, D. H., and Sninsky, J. J (1994) PCR Strategies. Academic, New York
Inouye, S. and Inouye, M. (1991) Site-directed mutagenesis using gapped-heteroduplex plasmid DNA, in Directed Mutagenesis, A Practical Approach (McPherson, M. J., ed.), Oxford University, New York, pp. 71–82.
Ju, J., Ruan, C, Fuller, C. W., Glazer, A. N., and Mathies, R. A. (1995) Fluorescence energy transfer dye-labeled primers for DNA sequencing and analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA 92, 4347–5351
Kaslow, D. C. and Rawlings, D. J. (1993) Introducing restriction sites into double-stranded plasmid DNA, in Methods in Enzymology Recombinant DNA, part H, vol. 217 (Wu, R, ed.), Academic, New York, pp. 295–301.
Kennelly, P. J. (1994) Identification of sites of serine and threonine phosphorylation via site-directed mutagenesis—site transformation versus site elimination. Anal Biochem 219, 384–386
King, L. A. and Possee, R. D. (1992) The Baculovirus Expression System: A Laboratory Guide. Chapman and Hall, London
Kleina, L G. and Miller, J. H (1990) Genetic studies of the lac repressor, XII. Extensive amino acid replacements generated by the use of natural and synthetic nosnsense suppressors. J. Mol. Biol. 212, 295–318.
Kleina, L. G., Masson, J.-M, Normanly, J., Abelson, J., and Miller, J. H. (1990) Construction of Eschenchia coli amber suppressor tRNA genes, II. Synthesis of additional tRNA genes and improvement of suppressor efficiency J Mol Biol, 213, 705–717.
Kriegler, M. (1990) Gene Transfer and Expression A Laboratory Manual. Freeman, New York.
Kunkel, T. A. (1985) Rapid and efficient site-specific mutagenesis without phenotypic selection. Proc. Natl Acad Sci. USA 82, 488–492.
Kunkel, T. A. (1987) Rapid and efficient site-specific mutagenesis without phenotypic selection, in Methods in Enzymology: Recombinant DNA, part E, vol. 154 (Roberts, J. D. and Zakour, R. A., eds.), Academic, New York.
Lamb, C. J. (1990) Plant Gene Transfer. Liss, New York.
Marck, C. (1988) “DNA Strider”: a “C” program for the fast analysis of DNA and protein sequences on the Apple Macintosh family of computers. Nucleic Acid Res 16, 1829–1836.
McPherson, M. J. (1991) Directed Mutagenesis, A Practical Approach, IRL, New York.
McPherson, M. J. (1995) PCR 2 A Practical Approach, IRL, New York
Means, A. R. (1994) Calcium regulation of cellular function. Adv Sec Messeng Phosphopro. Res. 30, 1–416
Moffatt, B. A, Dunn, J J., and Studier, F W. (1984) Nucleotide sequence of the gene for bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase. J. Mol Biol 173, 265–269
Murray, E. J. (1991) Gene Transfer and Expression Protocols. Humana, Clifton, NJ.
NATO Advanced Study Institute on Plant Molecular Biology (1991) Plant Mol Biol 2. Plenum, New York.
Normanly, J., Kleina, L. G., Masson, J.-M., Abelson, J., and Miller, J. H. (1990) Construction of Eschenchia coli amber suppressor tRNA genes, III. Determination of tRNA specificity. J. Mol Biol. 213, 719–726
Olsen, D. B., Sayers, J. R., and Eckstein, F. (1993) Site-directed mutagenesis of single-stranded and double-stranded DNA by phosphorothioate approach, in Methods in Enzymology: Recombinant DNA, part H, vol 217 (Wu, R, ed.), Academic, New York, pp. 189–217.
Piechocki, M. P. and Hines, R. N. (1994) Oligonucleotide design and optimized protocol for site-directed mutagenesis. Bio Techniques 16, 702–707.
Rychlik, W. and Rhoads, R. E. (1989) A computer program for choosing optimal oligonucleotides for filter hybridization, sequencing and in vitro amplification of DNA Nucleic Acid Res 17, 8543–8551
Saiki, R K, Gelfand, D. H, Stoffel, S., Scharf, S J., Higuchi, R, Horn, G T., Mullis, K. B., and Erlich, H. A. (1985) Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. Science 239, 487–491.
Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E. F., and Maniatis, T. (1989) Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual 2nd ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
Sarkar, G. (1995) PCR in Neuroscience. Academic, New York.
Sayers, J. R., Krekel, C, and Eckstein, F. (1992) Rapid high-efficiency site-directed mutagenesis by the phosphorothioate approach. BioTechniques 13, 542–546.
Selbert, M A., Anderson, K. A., Huang, Q.-H., Goldstein, E. G., Means, A. R., and Edelman, A. M. (1995) Phosphorylation and activation of Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV by Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase Ia kinase. J Biol Chem 270, 17,616–17,621.
Seto, D., Seto, J, Deshpande, P., and Hood, L (1995) DMSO resolves certain compressions and signal dropouts in fluorscent dye labeled primer-based DNA sequencing reactions. DNA Sequence 5, 131–140.
Shortle, D. and Botstein, D. (1985) Strategies and applications of in vitro mutagenesis. Science 229, 1193–1201.
Smith, D. B and Johnson, K. S (1988) Single-step purification of polypeptides expressed in Escherichia coli as fusions with glutathione S-transferase. Gene 67, 31–40.
Smith, M. (1985) In vitro mutagenesis. Ann. Rev. Genet 19, 423–462.
Steen, R., Dahlberg, A. E., Lade, B. N., Studier, F. W., and Dunn, J. J. (1986) T7 RNA polymerase directed expression of the Escherichia coli rrnB operon. EMBO J 5, 1099–1103.
Studier, F. W. and Moffatt, B. A. (1986) Use of bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase to direct selective high-level expression of cloned genes. J Mol. Biol 189, 113–130
Studier, F. W., Rosenberg, A. H., Dunn, J. J., and Dubendorff, J. W. (1990) Use of T7 RNA polymerase to direct expression of cloned genes, in Methods in Enzymology, Gem Expression Technology, vol 185, pp. 60–89.
Suzuki, T., Nairn, A. C, Gandy, S. E., and Greengard, P. (1992) Phosphorylation of Alzheimer amyloid precursor protein by protein kinase C. Neuroscience 48, 755–761.
Taylor, J. W., Ott, J., and Eckstein, F. (1985) The rapid generation of oligonucleotide-directed mutations at high frequency using phosphorothioate-modified DNA. Nucleic Acid Res 13, 8765–8785.
Vandeyar, M A., Weiner, M. P, Hutton, C. J., and Batt, C. A. (1988) Identification of a simple and rapid method for the selection of oligodeoxynucleotide directed mutants. Gene 65, 129–133.
Wang, Y. and Kent, C. (1995) Effects of altered phosphorylation sites on the properties of CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase. J Biol Chem 270, 17,843–17,849.
Weiner, M. P., Costa, G. L., Schoettlin, W., Cline, J., Mathur, E., and Bauer, J. C. (1994) Site-directed mutagenesis of double-stranded DNA by the polymerase chain reaction Gene 151, 119–123.
Werner, M. P., Felts, K, Simcox, T., and Braman, J. (1993) Directional method for the site-directed mono-and multi-mutagenesis of double-stranded DNA. Gene 126, 35–41.
Wold, F. and Moldave, K (1984) Methods in Enzymology, Posttranslational Modifications, parts A and B, vols. 106,107. Academic, New York
Wu, R. (1993) in, Methods in Enzymology, Recombinant DNA, part H, vol. 217. Academic, New York.
Yuckenberg, P. D., Witney, F., Geisselsoder, J., and McClary, J. (1991) Site-directed in vitro mutagenesis using uracil-containing DNA and phagemid vectors, in Directed Mutagenesis, A Practical Approach (McPherson, M J, ed.), IRL, New York, pp. 27–48.
Zhao, L.-J. and Padmanabhan, R. (1993) Polymerase chain reaction-based point mutagenesis protocol, in Methods in Enzymology. Recombinant DNA, part H, vol 217 (Wu, R., ed.), Academic, New York, pp. 218–227
Zhu, L. and Holtz, A E (1993) Improved protocol for the Transformer™ site-directed mutagenesis kit. Clontechniques Oct., 1–3.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1997 Humana Press Inc.
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Bibb, J.A., da Cruz e Silva F., E. (1997). Identification of Posttranslational Modification Sites by Site-Directed Mutagenesis. In: Hemmings, H.C. (eds) Regulatory Protein Modification. Neuromethods, vol 30. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1385/0-89603-415-1:275
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/0-89603-415-1:275
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-0-89603-415-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-635-5
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols