Abstract
In this chapter, we introduce the reader to a popular family of machine learning algorithms, called decision trees. We then review several approaches based on decision trees that have been developed for the inference of gene regulatory networks (GRNs). Decision trees have indeed several nice properties that make them well-suited for tackling this problem: they are able to detect multivariate interacting effects between variables, are non-parametric, have good scalability, and have very few parameters. In particular, we describe in detail the GENIE3 algorithm, a state-of-the-art method for GRN inference.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Geurts P, Irrthum A, Wehenkel L (2009) Supervised learning with decision tree-based methods in computational and systems biology. Mol Biosyst 5(12):1593–1605
Boulesteix AL, Janitza S, Kruppa J, König IR (2012) Overview of random forest methodology and practical guidance with emphasis on computational biology and bioinformatics. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Data Min Knowl Disc 2(6):493–507
Biau G, Scornet E (2016) A random forest guided tour. TEST 25(2):197–227
Huynh-Thu VA, Irrthum A, Wehenkel L, Geurts P (2010) Inferring regulatory networks from expression data using tree-based methods. PLoS ONE 5(9):e12776
Marbach D, Costello JC, Küffner R, Vega N, Prill RJ, Camacho DM, Allison KR, the DREAM5 Consortium, Kellis M, Collins JJ, Stolovitzky G (2012) Wisdom of crowds for robust gene network inference. Nat Methods 9(8):796–804
Omranian N, Eloundou-Mbebi JMO, Mueller-Roeber B, Nikoloski Z (2016) Gene regulatory network inference using fused lasso on multiple data sets. Sci Rep 6:20533
Kiani NA, Zenil H, Olczak J, Tegnér J (2016) Evaluating network inference methods in terms of their ability to preserve the topology and complexity of genetic networks. Semin Cell Dev Biol 51:44–52
Bellot P, Olsen C, Salembier P, Oliveras-Vergés A, Meyer PE (2015) NetBenchmark: a bioconductor package for reproducible benchmarks of gene regulatory network inference. BMC Bioinf 16:312
Maetschke SR, Madhamshettiwar PB, Davis MJ, Ragan MA (2014) Supervised, semi-supervised and unsupervised inference of gene regulatory networks. Brief Bioinform 15(2):195–211
Zhang X, Liu K, Liu ZP, Duval B, Richer JM, Zhao XM, Hao JK, Chen L (2013) NARROMI: a noise and redundancy reduction technique improves accuracy of gene regulatory network inference. Bioinformatics 29(1):106–113
Feizi S, Marbach D, Médard M, Kellis M (2013) Network deconvolution as a general method to distinguish direct dependencies in networks. Nat Biotechnol 31:726–733
Madhamshettiwar PB, Maetschke SR, Davis MJ, Reverter A, Ragan MA (2012) Gene regulatory network inference: evaluation and application to ovarian cancer allows the prioritization of drug targets. Genome Med 4(5):41
Qi J, Michoel T (2012) Context-specific transcriptional regulatory network inference from global gene expression maps using double two-way t-tests. Bioinformatics 28(18):2325–2332
Imam S, Noguera DR, Donohue TJ (2015) An integrated approach to reconstructing genome-scale transcriptional regulatory networks. PLoS Comput Biol 11(2):e1004103
Arrieta-Ortiz ML, Hafemeister C, Bate AR, Chu T, Greenfield A, Shuster B, Barry SN, Gallitto M, Liu B, Kacmarczyk T, Santoriello F, Chen J, Rodrigues CD, Sato T, Rudner DZ, Driks A, Bonneau R, Eichenberger P (2015) An experimentally supported model of the Bacillus subtilis global transcriptional regulatory network. Mol Syst Biol 11(11):839
Carrera J, Estrela R, Luo J, Rai N, Tsoukalas A, Tagkopoulos I (2014) An integrative, multi-scale, genome-wide model reveals the phenotypic landscape of Escherichia coli. Mol Syst Biol 10(7):735
Sabaghian E, Drebert Z, Inzé D, Saeys Y (2015) An integrated network of Arabidopsis growth regulators and its use for gene prioritization. Sci Rep 5:17617
Taylor-Teeples M, Lin L, de Lucas M, Turco G, Toal TW, Gaudinier A, Young NF, Trabucco GM, Veling MT, Lamothe R, Handakumbura PP, Xiong G, Wang C, Corwin J, Tsoukalas A, Zhang L, Ware D, Pauly M, Kliebenstein DJ, Dehesh K, Tagkopoulos I, Breton G, Pruneda-Paz JL, Ahnert SE, Kay SA, Hazen SP, Brady SM (2015) An Arabidopsis gene regulatory network for secondary cell wall synthesis. Nature 517(7536):571–575
Marchand G, Huynh-Thu VA, Kane N, Arribat S, Varès D, Rengel D, Balzergue S, Rieseberg L, Vincourt P, Geurts P, Vignes M, Langlade NB (2014) Bridging physiological and evolutionary time-scales in a gene regulatory network. New Phytol 203(2):685–696
Potier D, Davie K, Hulselmans G, Naval Sanchez M, Haagen L, Huynh-Thu V, Koldere D, Celik A, Geurts P, Christiaens V, Aerts S (2014) Mapping gene regulatory networks in Drosophila eye development by large-scale transcriptome perturbations and motif inference. Cell Rep 9(6):2290–2303
Jo J, Hwang S, Kim HJ, Hong S, Lee JE, Lee SG, Baek A, Han H, Lee JI, Lee I, Lee DR (2016) An integrated systems biology approach identifies positive cofactor 4 as a factor that increases reprogramming efficiency. Nucleic Acids Res 44(3):1203–1215
Acquaah-Mensah GK, Taylor RC (2016) Brain in situ hybridization maps as a source for reverse-engineering transcriptional regulatory networks: Alzheimer’s disease insights. Gene 586(1):77–86
Verfaillie A, Imrichova H, Atak ZK, Dewaele M, Rambow F, Hulselmans G, Christiaens V, Svetlichnyy D, Luciani F, Van den Mooter L, Claerhout S, Fiers M, Journe F, Ghanem GE, Herrmann C, Halder G, Marine JC, Aerts S (2015) Decoding the regulatory landscape of melanoma reveals TEADS as regulators of the invasive cell state. Nat Commun 6:6683
Ko JH, Gu W, Lim I, Zhou T, Bang H (2014) Expression profiling of mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel-1 associated genes predicts recurrence-free survival in human carcinomas. PLoS ONE 9(10):e110094
Hastie T, Tibshirani R, Friedman J (2009) The elements of statistical learning: data mining, inference and prediction, 2nd edn. Springer, Berlin
Bishop CM (2006) Pattern recognition and machine learning. Springer, Berlin
Breiman L, Friedman JH, Olsen RA, Stone CJ (1984) Classification and regression trees. Wadsworth International (California), Belmont
Breiman L (1996) Bagging predictors. Mach Learn 24(2):123–140
Breiman L (2001) Random forests. Mach Learn 45(1):5–32
Geurts P, Ernst D, Wehenkel L (2006) Extremely randomized trees. Mach Learn 36(1):3–42
Strobl C, Boulesteix AL, Zeileis A, Horthorn T (2007) Bias in random forest variable importance measures: illustrations, sources and a solution. BMC Bioinf 8:25
Huynh-Thu VA, Geurts P (2018) dynGENIE3: dynamical GENIE3 for the inference of gene networks from time series expression data. Sci Rep 8(1):3384
Huynh-Thu VA, Wehenkel L, Geurts P (2013) Gene regulatory network inference from systems genetics data using tree-based methods. In: de la Fuente A (ed) Gene network inference - verification of methods for systems genetics data. Springer, Berlin, pp 63–85
Ocone A, Haghverdi L, Mueller NS, Theis FJ (2015) Reconstructing gene regulatory dynamics from high-dimensional single-cell snapshot data. Bioinformatics 31(12):i89–i96
Aibar S, González-Blas CB, Moerman T, Huynh-Thu VA, Imrichova H, Hulselmans G, Rambow F, Marine JC, Geurts P, Aerts J, van den Oord J, Atak ZK, Wouters J, Aerts S (2017) SCENIC: single-cell regulatory network inference and clustering. Nat Methods 14:1083–1086
Petralia F, Wang P, Yang J, Tu Z (2015) Integrative random forest for gene regulatory network inference. Bioinformatics 31(12):i197–i205
Chiquet J, Grandvalet Y, Ambroise C (2011) Inferring multiple graphical structures. Stat Comput 21(4):537–553
Mohan K, London P, Fazel M, Witten D, Lee SI (2014) Node-based learning of multiple gaussian graphical models. J Mach Learn Res 15(1):445–488
Tian D, Gu Q, Ma J (2016) Identifying gene regulatory network rewiring using latent differential graphical models. Nucleic Acids Res 44(17):e140
Petralia F, Song WM, Tu Z, Wang P (2016) New method for joint network analysis reveals common and different coexpression patterns among genes and proteins in breast cancer. J Proteome Res 15(3):743–754
Soinov LA, Krestyaninova MA, Brazma A (2003) Towards reconstruction of gene networks from expression data by supervised learning. Genome Biol 4(1):R6
Segal E, Shapira M, Regev A, Pe’er D, Botstein D, Koller D, Friedman N (2003) Module networks: identifying regulatory modules and their condition-specific regulators from gene expression data. Nat Genet 34:66– 176
Joshi A, De Smet R, Marchal K, Van de Peer Y, Michoel T (2009) Module networks revisited: computational assessment and prioritization of model predictions. Bioinformatics 25(4):490–496
Nepomuceno-Chamorro IA, Aguilar-Ruiz JS, Riquelme JC (2010) Inferring gene regression networks with model trees. BMC Bioinf 11: 517
Huynh-Thu VA, Sanguinetti G (2015) Combining tree-based and dynamical systems for the inference of gene regulatory networks. Bioinformatics 31(10):1614–1622
Middendorf M, Kundaje A, Wiggins C, Freund Y, Leslie C (2004) Predicting genetic regulatory response using classification. Bioinformatics 20(Suppl_1):i232–i240
Phuong TM, Lee D, Lee KH (2004) Regression trees for regulatory element identification. Bioinformatics 20(5):750–757
Ruan J, Zhang W (2006) A bi-dimensional regression tree approach to the modeling of gene expression regulation. Bioinformatics 22(3):332–340
Xiao Y, Segal MR (2009) Identification of yeast transcriptional regulation networks using multivariate random forests. PLoS Comput Biol 5(6):e1000414
Lee SI, Pe’er D, Dudley AM, Church GM, Koller D (2006) Identifying regulatory mechanisms using individual variation reveals key role for chromatin modification. Proc Natl Acad Sci 103(38):14062–14067
Huynh-Thu VA, Saeys Y, Wehenkel L, Geurts P (2012) Statistical interpretation of machine learning-based feature importance scores for biomarker discovery. Bioinformatics 28(13):1766–1774
Degenhardt F, Seifert S, Szymczak S (2017) Evaluation of variable selection methods for random forests and omics data sets. Brief Bioinf bbx124. https://doi.org/10.1093/bib/bbx124
Ishwaran H (2007) Variable importance in binary regression trees and forests. Electron J Stat 1:519–537
Louppe G, Wehenkel L, Sutera A, Geurts P (2013) Understanding variable importances in forests of randomized trees. In: Burges CJC, Bottou L, Welling M, Ghahramani Z, Weinberger KQ (eds) Advances in neural information processing systems, vol 26. Curran Associates, Inc., Red Hook, pp 431–439
Sutera A, Louppe G, Huynh-Thu VA, Wehenkel L, Geurts P (2016) Context-dependent feature analysis with random forests. In: Proceedings of the thirty-second conference on uncertainty in artificial intelligence, UAI’16. AUAI Press, Corvallis, pp 716–725
Acknowledgements
VAHT is a Post-doctoral Fellow of the F.R.S.-FNRS.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Huynh-Thu, V.A., Geurts, P. (2019). Unsupervised Gene Network Inference with Decision Trees and Random Forests. In: Sanguinetti, G., Huynh-Thu, V. (eds) Gene Regulatory Networks. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 1883. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-8882-2_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-8882-2_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-8881-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-8882-2
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols