Abstract
In a sketched typology of characters who appears in classical tragedy,” as he refers to it, Jacques Truchet identifies that of the “inflexible and cruel old queen,” to whom, he maintains, writers of tragedy were particularly attracted.1 Leaving aside the problematic notion of character “type,” Truchet’s observation provides a fruitful point of access into the dramatic representation of the female sovereign of the period. Examination of a wide corpus reveals Truchet’s aging intransigent queen to be one manifestation of a larger assembly of ruling women, 2 and points therefore to a broader phenomenon: namely the frequency with which dramatists in seeking to create the world of disorder so central to tragedy and tragicomedy,3 chose to exploit (and, I would argue, hence propagate) the well-worn association of women, power and disorder—a constant in Western thought and one firmly embedded in the legal and political discourses of the Early Modern period.
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Notes
Jacques Truchet, La Tragédie classique en France (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, [1975] 1989), p. 73.
see François Hédelin, abbé d’Aubignac, La Pratique du théâtre [1657], ed. Hélène Baby (Paris: Champion, 2000), p. 430.
See also James D. Matthews, “The Tyrannical Sovereign in Pre-1640 French Tragicomedy: Political Statement or Dramatic Necessity?” in Milorad R. Margitic and Byron R. Wells, eds., Actes de Wake Forest. L’Image du souverain dans le théâtre de 1600 à 1650; Maximes; Madame de Villedieu (Paris, Tübingen, Seattle: PFSCL, 1987), pp. 147–158.
See Christian Biet, “Douceur de la vengeance, plaisir de l’interdit: le statut de la vengeance au XVIIe siècle,” in Eric Méchoulan, ed., La Vengeance dans la littérature d’Ancien Régime (Montréal: Université de Montréal, 2000), pp. 11–32.
See also Elliot Forsyth, La Tragédie française de Jodelle à Corneille (1553–1630). Le Thème de la vengeance (Paris: Champion, [1962] 1994).
Maurice Baudin’s The Profession of King in 17th-Century French Drama (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1941) remains useful.
see Enrica Zanin, Fins tragiques. Poétique et éthique du dénouement dans la tragédie de la première modernité (Italie, France, Espagne, Allemagne) (Geneva: Droz, 2014).
see Marlies Mueller, “The Taming of the Amazon: The Changing Image of the Woman Warrior in Ancien Régime Fiction,” Papers on Seventeenth-Century French Literature, 22 (1995), 199–232 (p. 215).
see Marina Warner, Joan of Arc: The Image of Female Heroism (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981).
see Charles T. Wood, Joan of Arc and Richard III: Sex, Saints and Government in the Middle Ages (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).
François Hédelin, abbéd’Aubignac, La Pucelled ’ Orléans (Paris: F. Targa, 1642);
[Benserade?/La Mesnardière?], La Pucelle d’Orléans (Paris: A. de Sommaville et A. Courbé, 1642).
see H. C. Lancaster, A History of French Dramatic Literature in the Seventeenth Century, 9 vols. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1929–42), II.i, p. 360.
See Du Tillet, Recueil des Roys de France, leur couronne et maison [1580] (Paris: J. du Puys, 1586), p. 214.
see Alfreda L. Hill, The Tudors in French Drama (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1932);
Jane Conroy, Terres tragiques. L’Angleterre et l’Écosse dans la tragédie française du XVIIe siècle (Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1999), esp. pp. 121–125;
and Kirsten Postert, Tragédie historique ou histoire en tragédie? Les Sujets d’histoire moderne dans la tragédie française (1550–1715) (Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 2010).
See, for example, Bossuet’s pronouncements on the issue in his Politique tirée des propres paroles de l’Écriture Sainte, ed. Jacques Le Brun (Geneva: Droz, 1967), Bk. 2, p. 50.
Jacques Truchet, “La tyrannie de Garnier à Racine: critères juridiques, psychologiques et dramaturgiques,” in M. Bertaud and N. Hepp, eds., L’Image du souverain dans les lettres françaises des guerres de religion à la révocation de l’Edit de Nantes (Paris: Klincksieck, 1985), pp. 257–264 (pp. 258–261).
See Nina Ekstein, “Staging the Tyrant on the Seventeenth-Century French Stage,” Papers on French Seventeenth Century Literature, 26.50 (1999), 111–129 (p. 112).
Jean-Marie Apostolidès, “Image du père et peur du tyran au XVIIe siècle,” Papers on French Seventeenth Century Literature, 10.2 (1978), 195–208 (p. 200).
see Roger Guichemerre, “Le théâtre ‘anglais’ de La Calprenède,” in Marie-Madeleine Martinet, ed., Regards européens sur le monde anglo-américain (Paris: Presses de l’Université de Paris-Sorbonne, 1992), pp. 211–223 (p. 216).
See John McGurk, The Tudor Monarchies, 1485–1603 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 54–62.
See Lillian Corti, The Myth of Medea and the Murder of Children (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998).
see G. Carloni and D. Nobili, trans. from the Italian by R. Maggiori, La Mauvaise mère. Phénoménologie et anthropologie de l’infanticide (Paris: Payot, [1975] 1977).
A very useful overview of the critical approaches to Corneille’s theatre in general and Rodogune in particular can be found in Pierre Ronzeaud, “Corneille dans tous ses états critiques. Pour une lecture plurielle de Rodogune,” Littératures classiques, 32 (1998), 7–40.
see Mitchell Greenberg, Subjectivity and Subjugation in Seventeenth-Century Drama and Prose (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), Ch. 4, “Rodogune: Sons and Lovers,” pp. 87–112.
Mitchell Greenberg, Corneille, Classicism and the Ruses of Symmetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 149.
See Hélène Merlin, “Corneille et la politique dans Cinna, Rodogune et Nicomède,” Littératures classiques, 32 (1998), 41–61, (p. 49).
see Sweetser, “Les femmes et le pouvoir dans le théâtre cornélien,” in Alain Niderst, ed., Pierre Corneille (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1985), pp. 605–614 (p. 609).
see Derek A. Watts, “A Further Look at Rodogune,” in Ulrich Döring, Antiopy Lyroudias and Rainer Zaiser, eds., Ouverture et dialogue. Mélanges offertes à Wolfgang Leiner (Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1988), 447–463 (p. 449).
Gossip, “The Problem of Rodogune” Studi francesi, 12 (1978), 231–240 (p. 240).
See Sara Mendelson and Patricia Crawford, Women in Early Modern England, 1550–1720 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 29.
David Collins, Thomas Corneille. Protean Dramatist (London, The Hague, Paris: Mouton, 1966), p. 130.
See Eléonore M. Zimmermann, La Liberté et le destin dans le théâtre de Racine (Saratoga, CA: Amna Libri, 1982), p. 142.
see Véronique Desnain, Hidden Tragedies. The Social Construction of Gender in Racine (New Orleans, LA: University Press of the South, 2002), pp. 134–8.
See Marie-Florine Bruneau, Racine, lejansénisme et la modernité (Paris: Corti, 1986), pp. 125–127.
See Harriet A. Stone, “The Seduction of the Father in Phèdre and Athalie,” in Selma A. Zebouni, ed., Actes de Baton Rouge (Paris, Tübingen, Seattle: PFSCL, 1986), pp. 153–164 (p. 162).
Helen Bates MacDermott, “Matricide and Filicide in Racine’s Athalie,” Symposium, 38 (1984), 56–69 (p. 57).
See M. J. Muratore, “Racine’s Athalie or the Power of Precedent,” Dalhousie French Studies, 49 (1999), 182–192 (p. 187).
see Scarlett Beauvalet-Boutouyrie, Étre Veuve sous lAncien régime (Paris: Belin, 2001), pp. 19–143.
see Jean-Philippe Grosperrin, “Furies de théâtre. Mythologie et dramaturgie des fureurs dans la tragédie classique,” in Fanny Népote-Desmarres with Jean-Philippe Grosperrin, eds., Mythe et histoire dans le théâtre classique. Hommage à Christian Delmas (Toulouse: Société de Littératures classiques, 2002), pp. 261–281.
Nicolas-Marc Desfontaines, La Véritable Semiramis (Paris: Pierre Lamy, 1647).
See Carine Barbafieri, Atrée et Céladon, la galanterie dans le théâtre tragique de la France classique (1634–1702) (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2006).
See Rebecca W. Bushnell, Tragedies of Tyrants. Political Thought and Theater in the English Renaissance (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), pp. 20–25, 63–69.
Michèle Longino, Orientalism in French Classical Drama (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
Christian Biet, La Tragédie (Paris: A. Colin, 1997), pp. 67–69.
see Joan-Pau Rubiès, “Oriental Despotism and European Orientalism: Botero to Montesquieu,” Journal of Early Modern History, 9.1–2 (2005), 109–180;
Alain Grosrichard, Structure du sérail: la fiction du despotisme asiatique dans l’occident classique (Paris: Seuil, 1979).
See Madeleine Bertaud, La Jalousie dans la littérature française au temps de Louis XIII (Geneva: Droz, 1981), pp. 50–57.
see Alain Riffaud, La Ponctuation du théâtre imprimé au XVIIe siècle (Geneva: Droz, 2007), pp. 73–74.
Georges Forestier, “Notice” to Bajazet, in Jean Racine, Œuvres complètes, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (Paris: Gallimard, 1999), I, p. 1493.
See also Sheila Page Bayne, Tears and Weeping: An Aspect of Emotional Climate Reflected in Seventeenth-Century French Literature (Tübingen: Narr; Paris: Place, 1981),
See Julia M. Walker, ed., Dissing Elizabeth: Negative Representations of Gloriana (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1998) for the darker side of the discourse on Gloriana/Astraea/good Queen Bess. (The focus is on English non-dramatic material from the 1540s to the 1620s).
see Florence de Caigny, “Le Comte d’Essex de Claude Boyer: Élisabeth ou la confusion des rôles,” Études Épistémè, 10 (2009), 112–129, esp. 119–125 (http://revue.etudes-episteme.org/?le-comte-d-essex-de-claude-boyer; accessed March 29, 2015).
Jacques Truchet, “Notice” in Jacques Scherer and Jacques Truchet, eds., Théâtre du XVIIe siècle, 3 vols. (Paris: Gallimard, 1986), II, p. 1554.
See Vincent Grégoire, “La femme et la loi dans la perspective des pièces bibliques raciniennes représentées à Saint-Cyr,” XVIIe siècle, 179 (1993), 323–336 (p. 323).
See Jacques Truchet, ed., Recherches de thématique théâtrale. L’Exemple des conseillers des rois dans la tragédie classique (Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1981).
Mary Hamer, Signs of Cleopatra: History, Politics, Representation (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), p. xix.
see Michel Chauveau, Cleopatra. Beyond the Myth, trans. David Lorton (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, [1998] 2002).
see Alain Riffaud’s introduction to the play in Jean Mairet, Théâtre complet, tome 1 (Paris: Champion, 2004), pp. 204–205, n.II.
See Marylyn L. Williamson, Infinite Variety. Antony and Cleopatra in Renaissance Drama and Earlier Tradition (Mystic, CT: Lawrence Verry, 1974), pp. 71–168.
See Philip Tomlinson, “Le personnage de Cléopâtre chez Mairet et Corneille,” XVIIe siècle, 190 (1996), 67–75 (pp. 70–72).
See Tomlinson, “L’art d’embellir des vices: The Antony and Cleopatra plays of Mairet and Benserade in the Light of Richelieu’s Rehabilitation of the Theatre,” Australian Journal of French Studies, 33 (1996), 349–365 (p. 360).
see W. W. Tarn, “The Battle of Actium,” Journal of Roman Studies, 21 (1931), 173–199 (p. 197).
Quoted in Les Frères Parfaict, Histoire du Théâtre français (Paris: P. G. Le Mercier et Saillant, 1734–1749), Vol. 12, p. 297.
See Marc Fumaroli, “Tragique païen et tragique chrétien dans Rodogune,” Revue des Sciences humaines, 152 (1973), 599–631.
Reprinted in Héros et Orateurs. Rhétorique et dramaturgie cornéliennes (Geneva: Droz, 1990), pp. 170–208.
(such as Du Ryer’s Nitocris, Reyne de Babylone (Paris: A. de Sommaville, 1650)) that are particularly interesting, since they go against the grain.
Anne M. Menke, “The Widow Who Would Be Queen: The Subversion of Patriarchal Monarchy in Rodogune and Andromaque” Cahiers du dix-septième, 7.1 (1997), 205–214, p. 205
see Maurice Baudin, “The Stateswoman in Seventeenth-Century French Tragedy,” Modern Language Notes, 53.5 (1938), 319–327 (p.325).
See Muratore, Expirer auFéminin. Narratives of Female Dissolution in French Classical Texts (New Orleans, LA: University Press of the South, 2003), pp. 49–59.
Georges Forestier, Essai de génétique théâtrale. Corneille à l’œuvre (Paris: Klincksieck, 1996);
John D. Lyons, The Tragedy of Origins: Pierre Corneille and Historical Perspective (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996);
Alain Couprie, “De l’usage de l’histoire dans les tragédies de Corneille et de Racine: deux visions différentes de la tragédie politique,” Papers on Seventeenth-Century French Literature, 27.52 (2000), 225–234.
see also Gordon D. McGregor, “Rodogune, Nicomède and the Status of History in Corneille,” Stanford French Review, 11.2 (1987), 133–156.
see Helen Hackett, Virgin Mother, Maiden Queen: Elizabeth I and the Cult of the Virgin Mary (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995)
and Carole Levin, The Heart and Stomach of a King: Elizabeth I and the Politics and Sex and Power (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994).
see Alison Plowden, Elizabeth Regina. The Age of Triumph 1588–1603 (London: Macmillan, 1980), pp. 135–171.
and André Lefèvre, “Les sources des tragédies sur le comte d’Essex (XVIIe siècle), en France et en Angleterre,” Revue de littérature comparée, 40.4 (1966), 616–624.
See Edith Flamarion, Cléopâtre. Vie et mort d’un pharaon (Paris: Gallimard, 1993), pp. 31–40.
see A. Daniel Frankforter, “Amalasuntha, Procopius, and a Woman’s Place,” Journal of Women’s History, 8.2 (1996), 41–57;
Vito Antonio Sirago, Amalasunta. La Regina (ca. 495–535) (Milan: Jaca Book, 1998).
See, in particular, Henry Phillips, The Theatre and Its Critics in Seventeenth-Century France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980);
John D. Lyons, Kingdom of Disorder: The Theory of Tragedy in Classical France (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1999);
Georges Forestier, Passions tragiques et règles classiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2003);
“Théorie et pratique de l’histoire dans la tragédie classique,” Littératures classiques, 11 (1989), 95–107;
and, “Imitation parfaite et vraisemblance absolue. Réflexions sur un paradoxe classique,” Poétique, 82 (1990), 187–202.
See E. B. O. Borgerhoff, The Freedom of French Classicism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950)
and William Moore, The Classical Drama of France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971).
Jean-Yves Vialleton, Poésie dramatique et prose du monde. Le Comportement des personnages dans la tragédie en Prance au XVIIe siècle (Paris: Champion, 2004), pp. 638–640
Hippolyte-Jules Pilet de la Mesnardière, La Poétique (Paris: A. de Sommaville, 1640), pp. 120–125.
see Jean E. Howard, “Cross-Dressing, the Theatre and Gender Struggle in Early Modern England,” Shakespeare Quarterly, 39.4 (1988), 418–440 (p. 429).
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Conroy, D. (2016). The Power and the Fury, or the Politics of Representation in Drama. In: Ruling Women, Volume 2. Queenship and Power. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137568489_2
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