Skip to main content

“March That Won’t Turn Around”: Formation and Development of the Black Campus Movement

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Black Campus Movement

Part of the book series: Contemporary Black History ((CBH))

  • 1617 Accesses

Abstract

Civil rights and black power activists in the 1960s typically sought to raise the consciousness of white and black Americans, respectively, regarding the debilitating and oppressive exigencies of mid-twentieth-century African American life. Said differently, the CRM to primarily affect the moral conscious of white America to advance African Americans—or white suasion—gave way to black suasion to develop the moral, cultural, and political consciousness of African Americans toward the necessity of black unity, power, and agency through the Black Power Movement (BPM). Guided by the leading youth organization, SNCC, black students started hastily leaving civil rights in the mid-1960s, entering the ideological orbit of black power. In effect, the failures (and successes) of the CRM prepared the stage for the BPM, and its arm in academia, the BCM.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 29.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 37.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Notes

  1. Ahmad, We Will Return in the Whirlwind, p. 105; Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality: 1954–1992, (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993), pp. 130–132 (Conner quote).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), p. 302; Martin Luther King, “Letter from Birmingham City Jail,” in A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King Jr., ed. James M. Washington (San Francisco: Harper, 1986), p. 292; Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, pp. 145–146 (Kennedy quote); Jelani Favors, “Shelter in a Time of the Storm: Black Colleges and the Rise of Student Activism in Jackson, Mississippi” (PhD diss., The Ohio State University, 2006), pp. 215–216.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, pp. 144–145; Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Peter Knobler, Giant Steps (New York: Bantam Books, 1983), pp. 60–61.

    Google Scholar 

  4. William H. Orrick Jr., SHUT IT DOWN! A College in Crisis, San Francisco State College October, 1968–April, 1969: A Report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1969), pp. 77–78; “Black Student Association,” Office of Multicultural Affairs, The University of Memphis, accessed July 27, 2011, http://www.memphis.edu/multiculturalaffairs/organizations.htm; Ahmad, We Will Return in the Whirlwind, p. 104; Payson S. Wild to Faculty Member, May 8, 1968, General Files, folder: Black Student Protest—I, April–May 1968, NOWU Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Jabbar and Knobler, Giant Steps, pp. 71–76; Joseph Boskin, “The Revolt of the Urban Ghettos, 1964–1967,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 382 (March 1969), p. 7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Darlene Clark Hine, William C. Hine, and Stanley Harrold, The African-American Odyssey, Combined Volume (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2008), p. 594; Cleveland Sellers and Robert Terrell, The River of No Return: The Autobiography of a Black Militant (Jackson, MS: University of Mississippi Press, 1990), p. 94; Kay Mills, This Little Light of Mine: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer (New York: Dutton, 1993), p. 132.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Robin Gregory, “Howard University, 1967–1968: ‘You Saw the Silhouette of Her Afro,’” in Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s Through the 1980s, Henry Hampton, Steve Fayer, and Sarah Flynn (New York: Bantam Books, 1990), pp. 427–429, 433–436.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Bettina Aptheker, The Academic Rebellion in the United States (Secacus, NJ: The Citadel Press, 1972), pp. 21–23, 156–158; Rogers A. Fischer, “Ghetto and Gown: The Birth of Black Studies,” Current History 57 (November 1969), p. 291.

    Google Scholar 

  9. The following section on Malcolm’s ideological influence on black students is taken from Ibram H. Rogers, “‘People All Over the World Are Supporting You’: Malcolm X, Ideological Formations, and Black Student Activism, 1960–1972,” The Journal of African American History 96 (Winter 2011), pp. 14–38; Malcolm X, “The Harvard Law School Forum of December 16, 1964,” in Malcolm X Speeches at Harvard, ed. Archie Epps (New York: Paragon House, 1991), p. 161.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Vincent Harding, Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, “We Changed the World, 1945–1970,” in To Make the World Anew: A History of African Americans from 1880, eds. Robin D. G. Kelley and Earl Lewis (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 238–239.

    Google Scholar 

  11. “Howard University Student Body Petition,” March 9, 1965, WHCF: Human Rights, box 27, folder: GEN HU 2/ST 1 3/9/65, LBJL; James Forman, Sammy Younge, Jr.: The First Black College Student to Die in the Black Liberation Movement (New York: Grove Press, 1968), pp. 79–80; Harding, Kelley, and Lewis, “We Changed the World,” p. 239.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985), p. 173.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Jimmy Garrett, “Watts Thoughts on a Rebellion,” Students for a Democratic Society Bulletin, 1965, http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=kt4w1003tt&brand=calisphere &doc.view=entire_text, accessed November 11, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Scot Brown, Fightingfor US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism (New York: New York University Press, 2003), pp. 38–39; William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 31; Earl Anthony, The Time of the Furnaces: A Case Study of Black Student Revolt (New York: Dial Press, 1971), pp. 23–25

    Google Scholar 

  15. Maulana Karenga, The Quotable Karenga (Los Angeles: US Organization, 1967).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Hasan Kwame Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes: Civil Rights and Black Power in Alabama’s Black Belt (New York: New York University Press, 2009).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2006), p. 141–142; Sellers, River of No Return, pp. 164–167; Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), p. 44.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Huey P. Newton and J. Herman Blake, Revolutionary Suicide (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973), pp. 110–113.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 2004), p. 140.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Richard P. McCormick, The Black Student Protest Movement at Rutgers (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990) pp. 17–18; “The Basis of Our Ethos,” WEL, Spring 2008, WC Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  21. David Bishop, “Civil Rights and Race Relations in Durham and in the State: The Shepard, Elder, Massie and Whiting Models,” in A History of N.C. Central University; A Town and Gown Analysis. ed. George W. Reid (North Carolina: George W. Reid, 1985), p. 78, General Files, NCCU Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  22. John A. Centra, “Black Students at Predominantly White Colleges: A Research Description,” Sociology of Education 43 (Summer 1970),” pp. 328–334; Patricia Gurin and Edgar Epps, Black Consciousness, Identity, and Achievement: A Study of Students in Historically Black Colleges (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975), pp. 197–233; The Report of the President’s Commission on Campus Unrest (New York: Arno Press, 1970), pp. 94–96; Allen B. Ballard, The Education of Black Folk: The Afro-American Struggle for Knowledge of White America (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), pp. 90–95; Harry Edwards, Black Students (New York: The Free Press, 1970), p. 92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Copyright information

© 2012 Ibram H. Rogers

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kendi, I.X. (2012). “March That Won’t Turn Around”: Formation and Development of the Black Campus Movement. In: The Black Campus Movement. Contemporary Black History. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137016508_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137016508_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, New York

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-230-11781-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-137-01650-8

  • eBook Packages: Palgrave History CollectionHistory (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics