Abstract
Existing media diversity policies have had and will continue to have an important role in realizing the overall diversity of media content available.1 The various measures that exist in the member states, and at a European level, to promote a diversity of sources and independent media suppliers, as well as diversity in the output of individual media outlets, have firmly put their stamp on the structure of national media markets. When creating the conditions that users can benefit from media diversity, media law and policy are continuously being challenged to take into account the dynamics of permanently evolving media markets. A dynamic element that so far has played only a marginal role in traditional diversity policies, and which shall be at the focus of this chapter, is the changing role of the audience, and its increasingly complex relationship with the suppliers of media content.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aghion, P. and Bolton, P. (1987) ‘Contracts as Barriers to Entry’, The American Economic Review, 77(3), 388–401.
Bagdasarov, Z., Greene, K., Banerjee, S.C., Krcmar, M., Yanovitzky, I. and Ruginyte, D. (2010) ‘“I Am What I Watch”: Voyeurism, Sensation Seeking, and Television Viewing Patterns’, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(2), 299–315.
Barendt, E. (1993) Broadcasting Law: A Comparative Study (New York: Oxford University Press).
Beisch, N. and Negel, B. (2006) ‘Wie viele Programme nutzen die Fernsehzuschauer? Analyse zum Relevant Set’, Media Perspektiven, 7, 374–379.
Commissariaat voor de Media (2011) Mediamonitor, The Dutch Media in 2010 (Hilversum: Commissariaat voor de Media).
Cooper, R. and Tang, T. (2009) ‘Predicting Audience Exposure to Television in Today’s Media Environment: An Empirical Integration of Active-Audience and Structural Theories’, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(3), 400–418.
Council of Europe (1999) Recommendation No. R(99)1 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on Measures to Promote Media Pluralism, Strasbourg.
Council of Europe (2000) Declaration on Cultural Diversity, Strasbourg, 2 December.
Council of Europe (2002) Media Diversity in Europe, Report Prepared by the Advisory Panel to the CDMM on Media Concentrations, Pluralism and Diversity Questions, Strasbourg, December.
Council of Europe (2003) Declaration on Freedom of Communication on the Internet, Strasbourg.
Council of Europe (2007a) Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on Protecting the Role of the Media in Democracy in the Context of Media Concentration, Strasbourg, 31 January.
Council of Europe (2007b) Recommendation Rec 11 on Promoting Freedom of Expression and Information in the New Information and Communications Environment, Strasbourg, September.
Council of Europe (2008) Methodology for Monitoring Media Concentration and Media Content Diversity, Report Prepared by the Group of Specialists on Media Diversity (MC- S- MD), November 2008, http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/media/Doc/H-Inf%282009%299_en.pdf [accessed 5 August 2012].
DiMaggio, P., Hargittai, E., Celeste, C. and Shefer, S. (2004) From Unequal Access to Differentiated Use: A Literature Review and Agenda for Research on Digital Inequality, Report prepared for the Russell Sage Foundation, http://www.eszter.com/research/c05-digitalinequality.html [accessed 5 August 2013].
Entman, R. and Wildman, S. (1992) ‘Reconciling Economic and Non-economic Perspectives on Media Policy: Transcending the “market place of ideas”’, Journal of Communication, 42, 5–19.
EU MPM Study (2009) — see below, under KU Leuven — ICRI et al.
European Commission (2007), Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A European Approach to Media Literacy in the Digital Environment COM(2007) 833 final, Brussels, 102, December.
European Commission (2010) ‘A Digital Agenda for Europe’, COM(2010) 245, Brussels, 19 May.
European Commission (2011a) Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A Single Market for Intellectual Property Rights: Boosting Creativity and Innovation to Provide Economic Growth, High Quality Jobs and First Class Products and Services in Europe, COM(2011) 287 final, Brussels, 24 May,, http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/copyright/docs/ipr_strategy/COM_2011_287_en.pdf [accessed 5 August 2013].
European Commission (2011b) Green Paper on the Online Distribution of Audiovisual Works in the European Union: Opportunities and Challenges Towards a Digital Single Market, COM(2011) 427 final, Brussels, 13 July.
European Court of Justice (2011) Case C-403/08 and C-429/08), 4 October (Premier League).
European Parliament (1998) Opinion of the Committee on Culture, Youth Education and the Media of the European Parliament on the Proposed Conditional Access Directive, A4-0136/98, Brussels, 9 February.
European Parliament (2006) Opinion of the Committee on Industry, Research and Europa, Energy for the Committee on Culture and Education on the Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council Amending Council Directive 89/552/EEC on the Coordination of Certain Provisions Laid Down by Law, Regulation or Administrative Action in Member States Concerning the Pursuit of Television Broadcasting Activities, COM(2005)0646 — C6-0443/2005-2005/0260(COD), Brussels, 11 October.
Ferguson, D. and Perse, E. (1993) ‘Media and Audience Influences on Channel Repertoire’, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 37(1), 31–46.
Goodman, E.P. (2008) ‘Public Media 2.0, Draft’, 1 August, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1299685.
Grabe, M.E., Kamhawi, R. and Yegiyan, N. (2009) ‘Informing Citizens: How People with Different Levels of Education Process Television, Newspaper, and Web News’, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53, 90–111.
Hargittai, E. (2000) ‘Open Portals or Closed Gates? Channeling Content on the World Wide Web’, Poetics, 27, 233–253.
Hargittai, E. (2003) ‘The Digital Divide and What to do About it’, http://www.eszter.com/research/pubs/hargittai- digitaldivide.pdf [accessed 5 August 2013].
Hargittai, E. (2007) ‘Content Diversity Online: Myth or Reality?’, in P. Napoli (ed.), Media Diversity and Localism: Meaning and Metrics (New York: Lawrence Erlbaum).
Helberger, N. (2002) ‘Brood en spelen — De implementatie van de evenementenlijst van artikel 3a van de Televisierichtlijn’, Mediaforum, 3, 78–84.
Helberger, N. (2005) Controlling Access to Content (Den Haag: Kluwer Law International).
Helberger, N. (2011) ‘Diversity by Design’, Journal of Information Policy, 1, 441–469, http://jip.vmhost.psu.edu/ojs/index.php/jip/article/view/59/40 [accessed 5 August 2013].
Hindman, M. and Cukier, K.N. (2003) Measuring Media Concentration Online and Offline, Paper presented at Media Diversity and Localism: Meaning, Metrics, and the Public Interest (New York: Ford Foundation).
Holznagel, B. and Jungfleisch, C. (2007), ‘The Protection of Viewer Rights in Europe’, in P. Baldi and U. Hasebrink (eds), Broadcasters and Citizens in Europe: Trends in Media Accountability and Viewer Participation (Bristol: Intellect Books).
Kang, M.H. (2002) ‘Interactivity in Television: Use and Impact of an Interactive Program Guide’, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 46, 330–345.
Karppinen, K. (2010) ‘Rethinking Media Pluralism: A Critique of Theories and Policy Discourses’, Dissertation, University of Helsinki, Department of Social Research.
Klemperer, P. (1987) ‘Markets with Consumer Switching Costs’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 102(2), 375–394.
Ksiazek, T. and Webster, J. (2008) ‘Cultural Proximity and Audience Behavior: The Role of Language in Patterns of Polarization and Multicultural Fluency’, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 52, 485–503.
KU Leuven — ICRI, Jönköping International Business School — MMTC, Central European University — CMCS, Ernst &Young Consultancy Belgium (2009) Independent Study on Indicators for Media Pluralism in the Member States — Towards a Risk- Based Approach (Final Report and Annexes: User Guide, MPM, Country Reports, prepared for the European Commission) (Brussels: European Commission), http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/independent-study-indicators-media-pluralism (‘EU MPM Study’ [accessed 5 August 2013)].
Livingstone, S. (2003) ‘The Changing Nature of Audiences: From the Mass Audience to the Interactive Media User’ in A. Valdivia (ed.), Companion to Media Studies, Blackwell Companions in Cultural Studies, 6 (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing), http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/417/1/Chapter_in_Valdivia_Blackwell_volume_2003.pdf [accessed 5 August 2013].
McQuail, D. (1993) Media Performance. Mass Communication and the Public Interest (London: Sage).
Napoli, P. (1997) ‘Rethinking Program Diversity Assessment: An Audience- Centered Approach’, The Journal for Media Economics, 10, 59–74.
Napoli, P. (1999) ‘Deconstructing the Diversity Principle’, Journal of Communication, 49(4), 7–34.
Napoli, P.M. and Gillis, N. (2008) Media Ownership and the Diversity Index: Outlining a Social Science Research Agenda, McGannon Centre Working Paper Series, 5, http://fordham.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=mcgannon_working_papers [accessed 5 August 2013].
Noam, E. (1994) ‘Reconnecting Communications Studies with Communications Policy’, Journal of Communication, 43, 207–214.
Ofcom (2012) ‘Measuring Media Plurality. Ofcom’s Advice to the Secretary of State for Culture, Olympics, Media and Sport’, 19 June, http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/consultations/measuring-plurality/statement/statement.pdf [accessed 5 August 2013].
Peterson, P. and Kern, R. (1996) ‘Changing Highbrow Taste: From Snob to Omnivore’, American Sociological Review, 61, 900–907.
Prior, M. (2005) ‘News vs Entertainment: How Increasing Media Choice Widens the Gap in Political Knowledge and Turnout’, American Journal of Political Science, 49, 577–592.
Riley, C.R., II (2005) Disability and the Media: Prescriptions for Change (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England).
Rifkin, J. (2000) The Age of Access: How the Shift from Ownership to Access Is Transforming Capitalism (New York: Tarcher/Putnam).
Schönbach, K. (2007) ‘The Own in the Foreign: Reliable Surprise — An Important Function of the Media?’, Media, Culture & Society, 29, 344–353.
Schulz, W., Held, T. and Kops, M. (2002) Perspektiven der Gewährleistung freier öffentlicher Kommunikation (Baden-Baden: Nomos).
Stark, B. (2009) ‘Digitale Programmnavigation’, Media Perspektiven, 5, 233–245.
Sunstein, C. (2007) Republic.com 2.0 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press).
UNESCO (2005) Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, Paris, 20 October 2005.
Valcke, P. (2011) ‘Looking For the User in Media Pluralism Regulation: Unraveling the Traditional Diversity Chain and Recent Trends of User Empowerment in European Media Regulation’, Journal of Information Policy, 1, 287–320.
Van Cuilenburg, J. (2002) ‘The Media Diversity Concept and European Perspectives’, paper presented at the Media Economics, Content and Diversity Seminar of the Finnish Academy of Sciences, Helsinki, 16 December, http://www.cvdm.nl/dsresource?objectid=6838&type=org [accessed 5 August 2013].
Van Cuilenburg, J. and McQuail, D. (2008) ‘Media Policy Paradigm Shifts: Towards a New Communications Policy Paradigm’, European Journal of Communication, 18, 181–207.
Van der Wurff, R. (2004) ‘Supplying and Viewing Diversity: The Role of Competition and Viewer Choice in Dutch Broadcasting’, European Journal of Communication, 19, 215–237.
Van der Wurff, R. (2011) ‘Do Audiences Receive Diverse Ideas from News Media? Exposure to a Variety of News Media and Personal Characteristics as Determinants of Diversity as Received’, European Journal of Communication, 26, 328–342.
Webster, J.G. (2005) ‘Beneath the Veneer of Fragmentation: Television Audience Polarization in a Multi-channel World’, Journal of Communication, 55, 366–382.
Webster, J.G. (2006) ‘Diversity of Exposure’, in P. Napoli (ed.), Media Diversity and Localism: Meaning and Metrics (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
Webster, J.G. (2010) ‘User Information Regimes: How Social Media Shape Patterns of Consumption’, North Western University Law Review, 104, 593–612.
Webster, J.G. and Lin, S. (2002) ‘The Internet Audience: Web Use as Mass Behavior’, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 46, 1–12.
Webster, J.G. and Phalen, P. (1994) ‘Victim, Consumer, or Commodity? Audience Models in Communications Policy’, in J. Ettema and D.C. Whitney (eds), Audiencemaking: How the Media Create the Audience (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage).
Webster, J. and Wakshlag, J. (1983) ‘A Theory of Television Program Choice’, Communications Research, 10, 430–446.
Wong Shim, J. and Paul, B. (2007) ‘Effects of Personality Types on the Use of Television Genre’, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 51, 287–304.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2015 Natali Helberger
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Helberger, N. (2015). Media Pluralism Policies from the User Perspective. In: Valcke, P., Sükösd, M., Picard, R.G. (eds) Media Pluralism and Diversity. Palgrave Global Media Policy and Business. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137304308_20
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137304308_20
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-349-56626-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-30430-8
eBook Packages: Palgrave Media & Culture CollectionLiterature, Cultural and Media Studies (R0)