Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Flat-plate roof collapse of shallow caverns and protective measures: a case study of Longyou ancient siltstone caverns

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Natural Hazards Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Longyou rock caverns were found and were out of water in June 1992, which located in a small hill near to the north bank of Qujiang River, Zhejiang province, China. A series of flat-plate collapses occurred in the roof of cavern No. 24 from 30 September to 4 October in 2010; and finally, a daylight collapse appeared in the roof with a volume of 250 m3. Site investigation and laboratory tests on the surrounding siltstone indicate that the roof collapse can be attributed to the following adverse factors: (1) large span and shallow depth, (2) rock strength reduction due to water saturation, (3) rock weathering, and (4) dynamic loading caused by the walking of a large number of visitors. In order to protect the complete caverns Nos. 1–5 which are currently open to visitors, it is suggested to adopt integrated protection system, including (1) selecting the best tour routes and monitor system, (2) surface water drainage system, (3) beam–pillar supporting system, and (4) effective measures to slow weathering.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
Fig. 21

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Canakci H (2007) Collapse of caves at shallow depth in Gaziantep city center, Turkey: a case study. Environ Geol 53:915–922

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diederichs MS, Kaiser PK (1999) Stability of large excavations in laminated hard rock masses: the voussoir analogue revisited. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 36:97–117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fassina V, Favaro M, Naccari A, Pigo M (2002) Evaluation of compatibility and durability of a hydraulic lime-based plasters applied on brick wall masonry of historical buildings affected by rising damp phenomena. J Cult Herit 3:45–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuenkajorn K, Phueakphum D (2010) Physical model simulation of shallow openings in jointed rock mass under static and cyclic loadings. Eng Geol 113:81–89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao Q (2009) Stability analysis of Longyou caverns and the best tour route of the caverns Master of science in engineering thesis, Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences

  • Gao Q, Wang J, Yang ZF, Zhang LQ, Zhu JW, Zheng J, Fu Y (2009) Stability analysis of the large ancient underground rock caverns in Longyou and the selection of maximum-security routes in the caverns. Rock Soil Mech 30(9):2713–2721

    Google Scholar 

  • Guo GM, Li LH, Yang ZF, Tao B, Qu YX, Zheng J (2005) Weathering mechanism of the cretaceous argillaceous siltstone caverns. Bull Eng Geol Environ 64(4):397–407

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzor YH, Talesncik M, Tsesarsky M (2002) Continuous and discontinuous stability analysis of the bell-shaped caverns at Bet Guvrin, Israel. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 39:867–886

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzor YH, Wainshtein I, Mazor DB (2010) Stability of shallow karstic caverns in blocky rock masses. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 47:1289–1303

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins AB, Mcconnell BJ (1992) Engineering Sensitivity of sandstone strength and deformability to changes in moisture content. Q J Eng Geol 25:115–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IAEG (1979) Report of the commission on engineering geological mapping. Bull Int As Eng Geol 19:364–371

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. (2002) Fast Lagrangian analysis of continua in 3 dimensions. Itasca Consulting Group Inc, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeng FS, Wenig MC, Lin ML, Huang TH (2004) Influence of petrographic parameters on geotechnical properties of tertiary sandstones from Taiwan. Eng Geol 73:71–91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knöffel DK, Hoffmann D, Snethlage R (1987) Physico-chemical weathering reactions as a formulary for time-lapsing ageing test. Mater Struct 20(116):127–145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li L, Tanimoto C (2005) Research on the argillaceous cement of sandstone at Longyou grottoes. J Eng Geol 13(2):189–194

    Google Scholar 

  • Li LH, Yang ZF, Yue ZQ, Zhang LQ (2009) Engineering geological characteristics, failure modes and protective measures of Longyou rock caverns of 2000 years old. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 24(2):190–207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li LH, Liu JL, Fu Y, Yang ZF, Zhang ZJ (2012) Eight years test results of weathering rates and time limit prediction of chisel imprints on pelitic siltstone inside five Longyou caverns. J Eng Geol 20(5):706–714

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandala PK, Singha R, Maitib J, Singha AK, Kumara R, Sinha A (2008) Underpinning-based simultaneous extraction of contiguous sections of a thick coal seam under weak and laminated parting. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 45:11–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki P, Karatasios I, Bakolas A, Kilikoglou V (2005) Hydraulic lime mortars for the restoration of historic masonry in Crete. Cem Concr Res 35:1577–1586

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parise M, Lollino P (2011) A preliminary analysis of failure mechanisms in karst and man-made underground caves in Southern Italy. Geomorphology 134:132–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-navarro C, Doehne E (1999) Salt weathering: influence of evaporation rate, supersaturation and crystallization pattern. Earth Surf Process Landf 24:191–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sebastián E, Cultrone G, Benavente D, Fernandez LL, Elert K, Rodriguez-Navarro C (2008) Swelling damage in clay-rich sandstones used in the church of San Mateo in Tarifa (Spain). J Cult Herit 9:66–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SL264-2001 (2001) Specifications for rock test in water conservancy and hydroelectric engineering. China Water Power Press, Beijing

  • Sun J, Ling JM, Jia G, Zhan YP (2001) China’s Longyou grottoes, Zhejiang Province. News J ISRM 6(3):44–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Talesnick ML, Hatzor YH, Tsesarsky M (2001) The elastic deformability and strength of a high porosity, anisotropic, chalk. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 38(4):543–555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waltham AC (1993) Crown hole development in the sandstone caves of Nottingham. Q J Eng Geol 26:243–251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waltham AC, Park HD (2002) Roads over lava tubes in Cheju Island, South Korea. Eng Geol 66:53–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie SY, Shao JF (2006) Elastoplastic deformation of a porous rock and water interaction. Int J Plast 22:2195–2225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang ZF, Wang SJ, Xu B, Zhan YP, Xu JH, Guo JJ, Zhang Q (2000) Analysis of the engineering geological conditions of Longyou stone caverns and primary study on the protection strategies. J Eng Geol 8(3):291–295

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang LD, Yang ZF, Lu M (2005) Proceedings of the international symposium on protection of Longyou grottoes in China. Cultural Relics Publishing House, Beijing

  • Yang ZF, Yue ZQ, Li LH (2010) Scientific and technical issues and merits of Longyou large ancient underground rock caverns. China Sci, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang ZF, Yue ZQ, Li LH (2011) Design, construction and mechanical behavior of relics of complete large Longyou rock caverns carved in argillaceous siltstone ground. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 3(2):131–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Ye JH (2012) Seismic response of poro-elastic seabed and composite breakwater under strong earthquake loading. Bull Earthq Eng 10(5):1609–1633

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ye JH, Jeng D-S, Ren W, Zhu C-Q (2013) Validation of a 2D semi-coupled numerical model for fluid–structures–seabed interaction. J Fluid Struct 42:333–357

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ye JH, Jeng D-S, Ren W, Zhu Ch-Q (2014) Breaking wave-induced response of composite breakwater and liquefaction of seabed foundation. Coast Eng 85:72–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young D (2008) Salt attack and rising damp. A guide to salt damp in historic and older buildings. Published by the Heritage Branch, Office of Environment and Heritage

  • Yue ZQ, Li LH, Yang ZF, Lu M, Xu JH, Zheng J (2007) An investigation on long-term stability and integrity of surrounding rocks in Longyou caverns caved 2000 years ago. In: Ribeiro e Sousa L, Olalla C, Grossmann N (eds) Proceedings of the 11th congress of the international society for rock mechanics (ISRM 2007). Taylor & Francis, Lisbon, pp 19–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Yue ZQ, Fan SP, Yang ZF, Li LH, Zhang LQ, Zhang ZJ (2010) A hypothesis for crack free interior surfaces of Longyou caverns caved in argillaceous siltstone 2000 years ago. Front Archit Civ Eng China 4(2):165–177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang YF, Tang CA (2010) Numerical study on properties of weak interlayer of laminated composite. Acta Mech Solida Sin 23(3):231–239

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The work presented in this paper is financially supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2652013050) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (41172269, 41372322).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China

    Zhongjian Zhang & Jun Feng

  2. Key Laboratory of Shale Gas and Geoengineering, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100029, China

    Lihui Li

  3. State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Hydraulic Engineering, Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China

    Wenjie Xu

  4. Institute of Longyou Caverns, Longyou, 324400, Zhejiang, China

    Yan Fu

Authors
  1. Zhongjian Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lihui Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Wenjie Xu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Yan Fu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jun Feng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zhongjian Zhang.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (AVI 7290 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zhang, Z., Li, L., Xu, W. et al. Flat-plate roof collapse of shallow caverns and protective measures: a case study of Longyou ancient siltstone caverns. Nat Hazards 76, 191–213 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1481-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1481-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation