Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the role of perceived control in moderating the effects of acculturative stress on the well-being of first generation Afghan married men refugees (N = 137, 25–50 years) residing in Lahore, Pakistan. The participants completed a survey questionnaire comprising a demographic information sheet, the Multidimensional Acculturative Stress Scale (Jibeen, Khalid, International Journal of Intercultural Relations 34:233–243, 2010), the Cognitive Stress Scale (Cohen et al., Journal of Health and Social Behavior 24:385–396, 1983), the Positive Affect & Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 47:1063–1070, 1988), and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al., Journal of Personality Assessment 49:1–5, 1985). The results of moderated regression analyses revealed that perceived control can reduce the effect of stressful circumstances on satisfaction with life and increase positive psychological affect. The results could have implications for developing social and clinical therapeutic interventions towards a greater sense of self-determination and positive well-being to improve the refugees’ ability to take control of their lives.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andrews, F. M., & Withey, S. B. (1976). Social indicators of well-being: American’s perception of life quality. New York: Plenum.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1–26.
Beiser, M. (1991). The mental health of refugees in resettlement countries. In H. Adelman (Ed.), Refugee policy: Canada and the United States (pp. 425–442). Toronto: York Lanes Press.
Beiser, M. (1999). Strangers at the gate: The “boat people’s” first ten years in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Beiser, M., & Hou, F. (2001). Language acquisition, unemployment and depressive disorder among Southeast Asian refugees: A 10-year study. Social Science & Medicine, 53(10), 1321–1334.
Beiser, M., Simich, L., Pandalangat, N., Nowakowski, M., & Tian, F. (2011). Stresses of passage, balms of resettlement and PTSD among Sri Lankan Tamils in Canada. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(6), 333–340.
Berry, J. W. (1990). Psychology of acculturation. In J. Berman (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1989: Cross-cultural perspectives. Current theory and research on motivation, Vol. 37 (pp. 201–234). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 697–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.013.
Berry, J. W., Kim, U., Minde, T., & Mok, D. (1987). Comparative studies of acculturative stress. International Migration Review, 21, 491–511. https://doi.org/10.2307/2546607.
Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Segall, M. H., & Dasen, P. R. (2002). Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications (2nd edn.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Betancourt, T. S., Abdi, S., Ito, B. S., Lilienthal, G. M., Agalab, N., & Ellis, H. (2015). We left one war and came to another: Resource loss, acculturative stress, and caregiver-child relationships in Somali refugee families. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(1), 114–125. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037538.
Bhugra, D., Craig, T., & Bhui, K. (2010). The mental health of refugees and asylum seekers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Briggs, L., & Macleod, A. (2006). Demoralization-A useful conceptualization of non-specific psychological distress among refugees attending mental health services. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 52(6), 512–524. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764006066832.
Brislin, R. W. (1980). Translation and content analysis of oral and written materials. In H. Triandis & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (pp. 389–444). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Brislin, R. W., Lonner, W. J., & Throndike, R. M. (1973). Cross cultural research methods. New York: Wiley.
Church, A. T. (1982). Sojourner adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 540–572.
Cohen, S. (1980). After-effects of stress on human performance and social behavior: A review of research and theory. Psychological Bullefin, 88, 82–108.
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of cognitive stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385–396.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 1–5.
Diener, E., Suh, E., & Oishi, S. (1997). Recent findings on subjective well being. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24, 25–41.
Diwan, S., Jonnalagadda, S. S., & Balaswamy, S. (2004). Resources predicting positive and negative affect during the experience of stress: A study of older Asian Indian immigrants in The United States. The Gerontologist, 44(5), 605–614. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/44.5.605.
Dyal, J. A. (1984). Cross-cultural research with the locus of control constructs. In H. M. Lefcourt (Ed.), Research with the locus of control constructs (pp. 209–306). New York: Academic Press.
Dzeamesi, M. (2008). Refugees, the UNHCR and host governments as stake‐holders in the transformation of refugee communities: A study into the Buduburam refugee camp in Ghana. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, 4(1), 28–41. https://doi.org/10.1108/17479894200800004.
Ehntholt, K. A., & Yule, W. (2006). Practitioner review: Assessment and treatment of refugee children and adolescents who have experienced war-related trauma. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(12), 1197–1210.
Feyissa, A., & Horn, R. (2008). There is more than one way of dying: An Ethiopian perspective on the effects of long- term tays in refugee camps. In: D. Hollenbach (Ed) Refugee rights: Ethics, advocacy and Africa. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
Glass, D. C., & Singer, J. E. (1972). Urban stress: Experiments on noise and social stressors. New York: Academic Press.
Guerin, P., & Guerin, B. (2007). Families, communities and migration: What exactly changes? University of Waikato-New Zealand. Retrieved http://www.waikato.ac.nz/wfass/migration/docs/guerin-families communitiesmigration.pdf.
Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomtic Research, 11(2), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(67)90010-4.
Horn, R. (2009). A study of the emotional and psychological well-being of refugees in kakuma refugee camp, Kenya. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, 5(4), 20–32. https://doi.org/10.5042/ijmhsc.2010.0229.
Huebner, E. S., & Dew, T. (1996). The interrelationship of positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction in an adolescent sample. Social Indicators Research, 38, 129–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00300455.
Hui, C. H. (1982). Locus of control: A review of cross-cultural research. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 6, 301–323.
Jibeen, T., & Khalid, R. (2010). Development and preliminary validation of multidimensional acculturative stress scale for Pakistani immigrants in Toronto, Canada. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34, 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.09.006.
Kassam, A., & Nanji, A. (2006). Mental health of Afghan refugees in Pakistan: A qualitative rapid reconnaissance field study Intervention. Retrieved from http://www.ourmediaourselves.com/archives/41pdf/kassam.pdf.
Kim, M. T. (2002). Measuring depression among Korean Americans: Development of the Kim Depression Scale for Korean Americans. Journal of Trans cultural Nursing, 13, 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/104365960201300203.
Kinzie, J. D. (2013). The traumatic lives of refugees and asylum seekers. GP Solo, 30(5), 42–44.
Kramer, S. (2006). Forced migration and mental health in rethinking the care of refugees and displaced persons. In D. Ingleby (Ed.), Getting closer: Methods of research with refugees and asylum seekers (pp. 129–148). Netherlands: Springer.
Laban, C. J., Gernaat, H. B., Komproe, I. H., van der Tweel I., & De Jong, J. T. (2005). Postmigration living problems and common psychiatric disorders in Iraqi asylum seekers in the Netherlands. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 193(12), 825–832.
Lee, D. L., & Ahn, S. (2012). Discrimination against Latina/os: A meta-analysis of individual-level resources and outcomes. The Counseling Psychologist, 40, 28–65.
Lee, J. S., Koeske, G. F., & Sales, E. (2004). Social support buffering of acculturative stress: A study of mental health symptoms among Korean international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28, 399–414.
Lee, R. M. (2005). Resilience against discrimination: Ethnic identity and other-group orientation as protective factors for Korean Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(10), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.1.36.
Leung, C. (2001). The psychological adaptation of overseas and migrant students in Australia. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(4), 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590143000018.
Liebkind, K. (1996). Acculturation and stress: Vietnamese refugees in Finland. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 27, 161–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022196272002.
Lindert, J., Ehrenstein, O. S., Priebe, S., Mielck, A., & Brahler, E. (2009). Depression and anxiety in labor migrants and refugees-A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 69(2), 246–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.04.032.
Luszczynska, A., Gutierrez-Dona, B., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). General self-efficacy in various domains of human functioning: Evidence from five countries. International Journal of Psychology, 40, 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590444000041.
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). Research on resilience: Response to commentaries. Child Development, 71, 573–575.
Maundeni, T. (2001). The role of social networks in the adjustment of African students to British society: Students’ perceptions. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 4(3), 253–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320120073576.
Maxwell, S. E. (2004). The persistence of underpowered studies in psychological research: Causes, consequences, and remedies. Psychological Methods, 9, 147–163. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.9.2.147.
McLachlan, D. A., & Justice, J. (2009). A grounded theory of international student well-being. Journal of Theory Construction & Testing, 13(1), 27–32.
Measham, T., Rousseau, C., & Nadeau, L. (2005). The development and therapeutic modalities of a transcultural child psychiatry service. The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review, 14(3), 68–72.
Miller, K. E., & Rasco, L. M. (Eds.). (2004). The mental health of refugees: Ecological approaches to healing and adaptation. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Miller, K. E., & Rasmussen, A. (2010). War exposure, daily stressors, and mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings: bridging the divide between trauma-focused and psychosocial frameworks. Social Science & Medicine, 70(1), 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.09.02.
Mollica, R. F., Brooks, R., Tor, S., Lopes-Cardozo, B., & Silove, D. (2014). The enduring mental health impact of mass violence: A community comparison study of Cambodian civilians living in Cambodia and Thailand. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 60(1), 6–20.
Ondeko, R., & Purdin, S. (2004). Understanding the causes of gender-based violence. Forced Migration Review, 19, 1–30.
Payne, L. (1998). Food shortage and gender relations in Ikafe settlement, Uganda. Gender and Development, 6, 30–36.
Poyrazli, S., Thukral, R. K., & Duru, E. (2010). International student’s race-ethnicity, personality, and acculturative stress. Journal of Psychology and Counseling, 2(8), 25–32.
Rothe, E., & Pumariega, J. B. (2005). Mental health of immigrants and refugees. Community Mental Health Journal, 41(5), 581–597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-005-6363-1.
Ruiz, P., & Bhugra, D. (2010). Refugees and asylum seekers: Conceptual issues. In D. Bhugra, T. Craig & K. Bhui (Eds.), Mental health of refugees and asylum seekers (pp. 1–8). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Safdar, S., Struthers, W., & van Oudenhoven, J. P. (2009). Acculturation of Iranians in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(3), 468–491. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022108330990.
Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (2016). The Cambridge handbook of acculturation psychology (2nd edn.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schrijvers, J. (1997). Internal refugees in Sri Lanka: The interplay of ethnicity and gender. European Journal of Development Research, 9, 62–82.
Sue, S., Zane, N., Nagayama, G. C., & Berger, L. K. (2009). The case for cultural competency in psychotherapeuticinterventions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 525–548. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163651.
Tamang, R. (2009). Afghan forced migration: Reaffirmation, redefinition, and the politics of aid. Asian Social Science, 5(1), 3–12
Tartakovsky, T. (2013). Immigration: Policies, challenges and impact. Hauppauge: Nova Science.
Tiburg, M. V., & Vingerhoets, A. (2007). Psychological aspects of geographical moves: Homesickness and acculturation. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Uba, L. (1994). Asian Americans: Personality patterns, identity, and mental health. New York: Gulford Press.
United Nations High Commission of Refugees. (2015). Facts and figure about refugees. Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org.uk/about-us/key-facts-and-figures.html.
Van Selm, K., Sam, D. L., & Van Oudenhoven, J. P. (1997). Life satisfaction and competence of Bosnian refugees in Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 38(2), 143–149.
Vukojeviu, V., Kuburiu, Z. & Damjanoviu, A. (2016). The influence of perceived discrimination, sense of control, self-esteem and multiple discrepancies on the mental health and subjective well-being in Serbian immigrants in Canada. Psihologija, 49(2), 105–127.
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1992). Locus of control, mood disturbance and social difficulty during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16, 175–194.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 47, 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063.
Wei, M., Ku, T., Russell, D. W., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2008). Moderating effects of three coping strategies and self-esteem on perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms: A minority stress model for Asian international students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55(4), 451–462.
Wessels, M., & Monteiro, C. (2004). Internally displaced Angolans: A child-focused, community based intervention. In K. E. Miller & L. M. Rasco (Eds.), The mental health of refugees: Ecological approaches to healing and adaptation. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaoum.
Williams, C. L., & Berry, J. W. (1991). Primary prevention of acculturative stress among refugees: Application of psychological theory and practice. American Psychologist, 46, 632–641.
Yakushko, O., Watson, M., & Thompson, S. (2008). Stress and coping in the lives of recent immigrants and refugees: Considerations for counseling. International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 30, 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-008-9054-0.
Yamaguchi, Y., & Wiseman, R. L. (2003). Locus of control, self-construals, intercultural communication effectiveness, and psychological health of international students in the United States. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 32(4), 227–245.
Yongseok, K. (2002). The role of perceived control in moderating the effect of stressful circumstances among Korean immigrants. Health & Social Work, 27(1), 36–46.
Young, M. Y. (2001). Moderators of stress in Salvadoran refugees: The role of personal and social resources. International Migration Review, 35(3), 840–869.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jibeen, T. Subjective Well-Being of Afghan Refugees in Pakistan: The Moderating Role of Perceived Control in Married Men. Community Ment Health J 55, 144–155 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-018-0342-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-018-0342-9